Changes in the Zend Engine 2.0

    * New Object Model.

      The Zend Engine's handling of objects has been completely
      changed in order to allow for new features, but also to increase
      its performance.

      Objects were handled in previous versions like primitive types
      (for instance integers and strings). The drawback of this method
      is, that semantically the whole object was copied when a
      variable was assigned or parameters were passed to a method. The
      new approach refers to objects by handle and not by value (one
      can think of a handle as an object's ID).

      Many PHP programmers aren't even aware of the copying quirks of
      the old object model and, therefore, there is a relatively good
      chance that the amount of PHP applications that will work out of
      the box or after a very small amount of modifications would be
      high.

    * Private and Protected Members.

      The Zend Engine 2.0 introduces private and protected member 
      variables. Note that for performance reasons no error message is 
      emitted in case of an illegal access to a private or protectecd 
      member variable.

      Example:

        <?php
        class MyClass {
            private $Hello = "Hello, World!\n";
            protected $Bar = "Hello, Foo!\n";
            protected $Foo = "Hello, Bar!\n";

            function printHello() {
                print "MyClass::printHello() " . $this->Hello;
                print "MyClass::printHello() " . $this->Bar;
                print "MyClass::printHello() " . $this->Foo;
            }
        }

        class MyClass2 extends MyClass {
            protected $Foo;
            
            function printHello() {
                MyClass::printHello();                          /* Should print */
                print "MyClass2::printHello() " . $this->Hello; /* Shouldn't print out anything */
                print "MyClass2::printHello() " . $this->Bar;   /* Shouldn't print (not declared)*/
                print "MyClass2::printHello() " . $this->Foo;   /* Should print */
            }
        }

        $obj = new MyClass();
        print $obj->Hello;  /* Shouldn't print out anything */
        print $obj->Bar;    /* Shouldn't print out anything */
        print $obj->Foo;    /* Shouldn't print out anything */
        $obj->printHello(); /* Should print */

        $obj = new MyClass2();
        print $obj->Hello;  /* Shouldn't print out anything */
        print $obj->Bar;    /* Shouldn't print out anything */
        print $obj->Foo;    /* Shouldn't print out anything */
        $obj->printHello();
        ?>
        
      Protected member variables can be accessed in classes extending the 
      class they are declared in, whereas private member variables can 
      only be accessed by the class they belong to.

      Note: Protected member variables have to be declared in every class 
            they are used!
        
    * Private and protected methods. (TBD)

    * Object Cloning.

      The Zend Engine 1.0 offered no way a user could decide what copy
      constructor to run when an object is duplicated. During
      duplication, the Zend Engine 1.0 did a bitwise copy making an
      identical replica of all the object's properties.

      Creating a copy of an object with fully replicated properties is
      not always the wanted behavior. A good example of the need for
      copy constructors, is if you have an object which represents a
      GTK window and the object holds the resource of this GTK window,
      when you create a duplicate you might want to create a new
      window with the same properties and have the new object hold the
      resource of the new window. Another example is if your object
      holds a reference to another object which it uses and when you
      replicate the parent object you want to create a new instance of
      this other object so that the replica has its own separate copy.

      An object copy is created by calling the object's __clone()
      method.

      Example:

        <?php
        $copy_of_object = $object->__clone();
        ?>

      When the developer asks to create a new copy of an object, the
      Zend Engine will check if a __clone() method has been defined or
      not. If not, it will call a default __clone() which will copy
      all of the object's properties. If a __clone() method is
      defined, then it will be responsible to set the necessary
      properties in the created object. For convenience, the engine
      will supply a function that imports all of the properties from
      the source object, so that they can start with a by-value
      replica of the source object, and only override properties that
      need to be changed. [The function hasn't been implemented yet]

      Example:

        <?php
        class MyCloneable {
            static $id = 0;

            function MyCloneable() {
                $this->id = self::$id++;
            }

            function __clone() {
                $this->name = $that->name;
                $this->address = 'New York';
                $this->id = self::$id++;
            }
        }

        $obj = new MyCloneable();

        $obj->name    = 'Hello';
        $obj->address = 'Tel-Aviv';

        print $obj->id . "\n";

        $obj = $obj->__clone();

        print $obj->id . "\n";
        print $obj->name . "\n";
        print $obj->address . "\n";
        ?>

    * Nested classes (namespaces).

      The Zend Engine 1.0 provided only three scopes: the global
      scope, the class scope and the function scope. All scopes but
      classes could contain variables, only the class and global
      scopes could contain functions, while only the global scope
      could contain constants and classes. This means that all of the
      Zend Engine 1.0's scoping methods were inherently limited for
      solving symbol name collision problems.

      The Zend Engine 2.0 introduces the concept of nested classes
      to solve the symbol collision problem by making it possible to
      define multiple symbol tables able to contain all types of
      symbols. The Zend Engine is aware of a current class,
      defaulting to the global scope. Each class can contain it's
      own set of constants, functions and static variables. In order
      to access a class's local symbols you can use the self:: class
      accessor, for example, you can do self::$my_static_name = "Hello".
      You can also use the class's name such as
      MyClass::$my_static_name = "Hello". With both constants and
      functions, if you don't specify a class context the current class
      will be searched first and if the search fails then the global
      scope will be searched. If you want to force PHP to only check the
      global scope you can use the main:: accessor. For example,
      main::strlen() to make sure you're calling the strlen() in the main
      scope. You will only need to worry about this if you are defining
      methods which have the same name as global functions. For
      constants you can use the same notation such as self::MY_CONSTANT
      or main::MY_CONSTANT.
      Sometimes you will not want to access constants, functions or classes
      via the class accessor (i.e. MyClass::) because you use them very
      often and are an extremely slow typist. In this case, you can import
      functions, classes and constants from classes with the import keyword.
      It's quite self explanatory and there are a few examples below.


        * Classes may contain classes.

          Example:

            <?php
            class DB::MySQL {
                var $host = '';

                function db_connect($user) {
                    print "Connecting to MySQL database '$this->host' as $user\n";
                }
            }

            class DB::Oracle {
                var $host = 'localhost';

                function db_connect($user) {
                    print "Connecting to Oracle database '$this->host' as $user\n";
                }
            }

            $MySQL_obj = new DB::MySQL();
            $MySQL_obj->db_connect('Susan');

            $Oracle_obj = new DB::Oracle();
            $Oracle_obj->db_connect('Barbara');
            ?>

        * Classes may contain constants.

          Example:

            <?php
            class foo {
                const hey = 'hello';
            }

            print foo::hey;
            ?>

        * Current namespace's symbol tables are searched first for
          constants and functions.

          Example:

            The following code prints "foobar", not "foo", because
            the class constant overrides the "global" constant of
            the same name.

            <?php
            define('foo', 'bar');

            class FooClass {
                const foo = 'foobar';

                function printFoo() {
                    print foo;
                }
            }
            ?>

        * In the scope of a function, the current namespace is that
          of the containing class/namespace.

          Example:

            <?php
            class FooClass {
                function foo() {
                    $this->bar();
                    bar();
                }

                function bar() {
                    print "foobar\n";
                }
            }

            $obj = new FooClass;
            $obj->foo();
            $obj->foo();
            ?>

          This prints "foobar" two times, since a bar() method exists
          in the current namespace.

        * It is possible to "import" symbols from one namespace into
          another.

          Example:

            <?php
            class MyClass {
                class MyClass2 {
                    function hello() {
                        print "Hello, World in MyClass2\n";
                    }
                }

                function hello() {
                    print "Hello, World\n";
                }
            }

            import function hello, class MyClass2 from MyClass;

            MyClass2::hello();
            hello();
            ?>

          Example:

            <?php
            class MyOuterClass {
                class MyInnerClass {
                    function func1() {
                        print "func1()\n";
                    }

                    function func2() {
                        print "func2()\n";
                    }
                }
            }

            import class * from MyOuterClass;
            import function func2 from MyOuterClass::MyInnerClass;

            MyInnerClass::func1();
            func2();
            ?>

          Example:

            <?php
            class MyOuterClass {
                const Hello = "Hello, World\n";
            }

            import const Hello from MyOuterClass;
            print Hello;
            ?>

      Old code that does not take advantage of namespaces will run
      without modifications.

    * Unified Constructors.

      The Zend Engine allows developers to declare constructor methods
      for classes. Classes which have a constructor method call this
      method on each newly-created object, so it is suitable for any
      initialization that the object may need before it can be used.

      With the Zend Engine 1.0, constructor methods were class methods
      that had the same name as the class itself. Since it is very
      common to call parent constructors from derived classes, the way
      the Zend Engine 1.0 worked made it a bit cumbersome to move
      classes around in a large class hierarchy. If a class is moved
      to reside under a different parent, the constructor name of that
      parent changes as well, and the code in the derived class that
      calls the parent constructor has to be modified.

      The Zend Engine 2.0 introduces a standard way of declaring
      constructor methods by calling them by the name __construct().

      Example:

        <?php
        class BaseClass {
            function __construct() {
                print "In BaseClass constructor\n";
            }
        }

        class SubClass extends BaseClass {
            function __construct() {
                parent::__construct();
                print "In SubClass constructor\n";
            }
        }

        $obj = new BaseClass();
        $obj = new SubClass();
        ?>

      For backwards compatibility, if the Zend Engine 2.0 cannot find
      a __construct() function for a given class, it will search for
      the old-style constructor function, by the name of the class.
      Effectively, it means that the only case that would have
      compatibility issues is if the class had a method named
      __construct() which was used for different semantics.

    * Destructors.

      Having the ability to define destructors for objects can be very
      useful. Destructors can log messages for debugging, close
      database connections and do other clean-up work.

      No mechanism for object destructors existed in the Zend Engine
      1.0, although PHP had already support for registering functions
      which should be run on request shutdown.

      The Zend Engine 2.0 introduces a destructor concept similar to
      that of other object-oriented languages, such as Java: When the
      last reference to an object is destroyed the object's
      destructor, which is a class method name __destruct() that
      recieves no parameters, is called before the object is freed
      from memory.

      Example:

        <?php
        class MyDestructableClass {
            function __construct() {
                print "In constructor\n";
                $this->name = 'MyDestructableClass';
            }

            function __destruct() {
                print 'Destroying ' . $this->name . "\n";
            }
        }

        $obj = new MyDestructableClass();
        ?>

      Like constructors, parent destructors will not be called
      implicitly by the engine. In order to run a parent destructor,
      one would have to explicitly call parent::__destruct() in the
      destructor body.

    * Exceptions.

      The Zend Engine 1.0 had no exception handling. The Zend Engine 2.0
      introduces a exception model similar to that of other programming
      languages.

      Example:

        <?php
        class MyException {
            function __construct($exception) {
                $this->exception = $exception;
            }

            function Display() {
                print "MyException: $this->exception\n";
            }
        }

        class MyExceptionFoo extends MyException {
            function __construct($exception) {
                $this->exception = $exception;
            }

            function Display() {
                print "MyException: $this->exception\n";
            }
        }

        try {
            throw new MyExceptionFoo('Hello');
        }

        catch (MyException $exception) {
            $exception->Display();
        }
        ?>

      Old code that has no user-defined functions 'catch', 'throw' and
      'try' will run without modifications.

    * Dereferencing objects returned from functions.

      Example:

        <?php
        class Circle {
            function draw() {
                print "Circle\n";
            }
        }

        class Square {
            function draw() {
                print "Square\n";
            }
        }

        function ShapeFactoryMethod($shape) {
            switch ($shape) {
                case 'Circle': return new Circle();
                case 'Square': return new Square();
            }
        }

        ShapeFactoryMethod('Circle')->draw();
        ShapeFactoryMethod('Square')->draw();
        ?>

    * Static member variables of static classes can now be
      initialized.

      Example:

        <?php
        class foo {
            static $my_static = 5;
        }

        print foo::$my_static;
        ?>

    * Static methods. (TBD)

	  * Abstract methods. (TBD)

    * Static function variables.

      Statics are now treated at compile-time which allows developers
      to assign variables to statics by reference. This change also
      greatly improves their performance but means that indirect
      references to statics will not work anymore.

    * Parameters that are passed by reference to a function
      may now have default values.

      Example:

        <?php
        function my_function(&$var = null) {
             if ($var === null) {
                 die('$var needs to have a value');
             }
        }
        ?>

    * __autoload(). TBD.

    * Method calls and property accesses can be overloaded
      by class methods  __call(), __get() and __set().

      __get() and __set() Example:

        <?php
            class Setter {
                public $n;
                public $x = array('a' => 1, 'b' => 2, 'c' => 3);

                function __get($nm) {
                    print "Getting [$nm]\n";

                    if(isset($this->x[$nm])) {
                        $r = $this->x[$nm];
                        print "Returning: $r\n";
                        return $r;
                    } else {
                        print "Nothing!\n";
                    }
                }

                function __set($nm, $val) {
                    print "Setting [$nm] to $val\n";

                    if(isset($this->x[$nm])) {
                        $this->x[$nm] = $val;
                        print "OK!\n";
                    } else {
                        print "Not OK!\n";
                    }
                }
            }

            $foo = new Setter();
            $foo->n = 1;
            $foo->a = 100;
            $foo->a++;
            $foo->z++;
            var_dump($foo);
        ?>

      __call() Example:

        <?php
            class Caller {
                var $x = array(1, 2, 3);

                function __call($m, $a) {
                     print "Method $m called:\n";
                     var_dump($a);
                     return $this->x;
                }
            }

            $foo = new Caller();
            $a = $foo->test(1, '2', 3.4, true);
            var_dump($a);
        ?>


Changes in the Zend Engine 1.0

  The Zend Engine was designed from the ground up for increased speed,
  reduced memory consumption and more reliable execution. We dare say
  it meets all of these goals and does so pretty well. Beyond that,
  there are several improvements in the language engine features:

    * References support.

      $foo = &$a; would make $foo and $a be two names to the same
      variable. This works with arrays as well, on either side; e.g.,
      $foo = &$a[7]; would make $foo and $a[7] be two names to the
      same variable. Changing one would change the other and vice
      versa.

    * Object overloading support.

      This feature allows various OO libraries to use the OO notation
      of PHP to access their functionality. Right now, no use is made
      of that feature, but we'd have a COM module ready by the time
      PHP 4.0 is released. A CORBA module would probably follow.

    * include() and eval() are now functions, and not statements.

      That means they return a value. The default return value from
      include() and eval() is 1, so that you can do if (include())
      without further coding. The return value may be changed by
      returning a value from the global scope of the included file or
      the evaluated string. For example, if 'return 7;' is executed in
      the global scope of foo.inc, include('foo.inc') would evaluate
      to 7.

    * Automatic resource deallocation.

      Several people have been bitten by the fact that PHP 3.0 had no
      concept of reference counting. The Zend Engine adds full
      reference counting for every value in the system, including
      resources. As soon as a resource is no longer referenced from
      any variable, it is automatically destroyed to save memory and
      resources. The most obvious example for the advantage in this is
      a loop that has an SQL query inside it, something like '$result
      = sql_query(...);'. In PHP 3.0, every iteration resulted in
      another SQL result-set allocated in the memory, and all of the
      result sets weren't destroyed until the end of the script's
      execution. With the Zend Engine, as soon as we overwrite an old
      result set with a new one, the old result set which is no longer
      referenced, is destroyed.

    * Full support for nesting arrays and objects within each other,
      in as many levels as you want.

    * true and false are now constants of type boolean.

      Comparing any other value to them would convert that value to a
      boolean first, and conduct the comparison later. That means, for
      example, that 5==true would evaluate to true (in PHP 3.0, true
      was nothing but a constant for the integer value of 1, so
      5==true was identical to 5==1, which was false).

    * Runtime binding of function names.

      This complex name has a simple explanation - you can now call
      functions before they're declared!

    * Added here-docs support.

    * Added foreach.

      Two syntaxes supported:

        foreach(array_expr as $val) statement
        foreach(array_expr as $key => $val) statement

    * A true unset() implementation.

      A variable or element that is unset(), is now sent to oblivion
      in its entirely, no trace remains from it.

    * Output buffering support.

      Use ob_start() to begin output buffering, ob_end_flush() to end
      buffering and send out the buffered contents, ob_end_clean() to
      end buffering without sending the buffered contents, and
      ob_get_contents() to retreive the current contents of the output
      buffer. Header information (header(), content type, cookies) are
      not buffered. By turning on output buffering, you can
      effectively send header information all throughout your file,
      regardless of whether you've emitted body output or not.

    * Full variable reference within quoted strings:

        ${expr}    - full indirect reference support for scalar
                     variables
        {variable} - full variable support

        For example:

          $foo[5]['bar'] = 'foobar';
          print "{$foo[5]["bar"]}";  // would print "foobar"

    * Ability to call member functions of other classes from within
      member functions or from the global scope.

      You can now, for example, override a parent function with a
      child function, and call the parent function from it.

    * Runtime information for classes (class name, parent, available
      functions, etc.).

    * Much more efficient syntax highlighter - runs much quicker,
      performs more reliably, and generates much tighter HTML.

    * A full-featured debugger has been integrated with the language
      (supports breakpoints, expression evaluation, step-in/over,
      function call backtrace, and more).

  The Zend Engine claims 100% compatability with the engine of PHP
  3.0, and is shamelessly lying about it. Here's why:

    * Static variable initializers only accept scalar values
      (in PHP 3.0 they accepted any valid expression). The impact
      should be somewhere in between void and non existent, since
      initializing a static variable with anything but a simple
      static value makes no sense at all.

    * The scope of break and continue is local to that of an
      include()'d file or an eval()'d string. The impact should
      be somewhat smaller of the one above.

    * The return statement no longer works from a require()'d file. It
      hardly worked in PHP 3.0, so the impact should be fairly small. If
      you want this functionality - use include() instead.

    * unset() is no longer a function, but a statement.

    * The following letter combination is not supported within
      encapsulated strings:  "{$".  If you have a string that includes
      this letter combination, for example, print "{$somevar"; (which
      printed the letter { and the contents of the variable $somevar in
      PHP 3.0), it will result in a parse error with the Zend Engine.
      In this case, you would have to change the code to print
      "\{$somevar"; This incompatability is due to the full variable
      reference within quoted strings feature added in the Zend
      Engine.