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Merge alpha100 branch back to main trunk

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Guido van Rossum 1994-08-01 12:22:53 +00:00
parent ab3a2504b9
commit 6938f06047
27 changed files with 2906 additions and 1498 deletions
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1
Doc/.cvsignore
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@ -1 +1,2 @@
python-lib.info*
lib.texi

46
Doc/Makefile
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@ -2,13 +2,14 @@ DESTDIR=/usr/local
LIBDESTDIR=$DESTDIR/lib
LIBDEST=$LIBDESTDIR/python
DOCDESTDIR=$LIBDEST/doc
DVIPS= dvips -f
all: tut lib ref ext qua
all: tut lib ref ext
tut:
latex tut
latex tut
dvips tut >tut.ps
$(DVIPS) tut >tut.ps
ref:
touch ref.ind
@ -16,7 +17,7 @@ ref:
./fix_hack ref.idx
makeindex ref
latex ref
dvips ref >ref.ps
$(DVIPS) ref >ref.ps
lib:
touch lib.ind
@ -24,7 +25,7 @@ lib:
./fix_hack lib.idx
makeindex lib
latex lib
dvips lib >lib.ps
$(DVIPS) lib >lib.ps
ext:
touch ext.ind
@ -32,32 +33,51 @@ ext:
./fix_hack ext.idx
makeindex ext
latex ext
dvips ext >ext.ps
$(DVIPS) ext >ext.ps
qua:
latex qua
bibtex qua
latex qua
latex qua
dvips qua >qua.ps
$(DVIPS) qua >qua.ps
lib.texi: lib1.tex lib2.tex lib3.tex lib4.tex lib5.tex \
texipre.dat texipost.dat partparse.py
python partparse.py -o @lib.texi lib[1-5].tex
lib.texi: lib*.tex texipre.dat texipost.dat partparse.py fix.el
python partparse.py -o @lib.texi `whichlibs`
emacs -batch -l fix.el -f save-buffer -kill
mv @lib.texi lib.texi
.PRECIOUS: lib.texi
python-lib.info: lib.texi fix.el
emacs -batch -l fix.el -f save-buffer -kill
makeinfo +footnote-style end +fill-column 72 +paragraph-indent 0 \
python-lib.info: lib.texi
makeinfo --footnote-style end --fill-column 72 --paragraph-indent 0 \
lib.texi
lib.info: python-lib.info
# This target is very local to CWI...
libwww: lib.texi
texi2html -d lib.texi /usr/local/ftp.cwi.nl/pub/www/texinfo/python
texi2html -d lib.texi /ufs/guido/www/texinfo/python
# This one too...
L2H= /usr/local/LaTeX2html/latex2html
L2HARGS=-address $$USER@`domainname` -dont_include myformat -nolatex
l2h: l2htut l2href l2hext
l2htut: tut
$(L2H) $(L2HARGS) tut.tex
@rm -rf python-tut
mv tut python-tut
l2href: ref
$(L2H) $(L2HARGS) ref.tex
@rm -rf python-ref
mv ref python-ref
l2hext: ext
$(L2H) $(L2HARGS) ext.tex
@rm -rf python-ext
mv ext python-ext
clean:
rm -f @* *~ *.aux *.idx *.ilg *.ind *.log *.toc *.blg *.bbl *.pyc

57
Doc/README
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@ -7,12 +7,14 @@ and a published article about Python.
The following are the LaTeX source files:
tut.tex The tutorial
lib.tex, lib[1-5].tex The library reference
lib.tex, lib*.tex The library reference
ref.tex, ref[1-8].tex The reference manual
ext.tex How to extend Python
qua.tex, quabib.bib Article published in CWI Quarterly
All except qua.tex use the style option file "myformat.sty". This
contains some macro definitions and sets some style parameters.
All except qua.tex (which isn't built by the default target) use the
style option file "myformat.sty". This contains some macro
definitions and sets some style parameters.
The style parameters are set up for European paper size (21 x 29.7 cm,
a.k.a. A4, or roughly 8.27 x 11.7 inch) by default. To use US paper,
@ -33,8 +35,10 @@ local conventions; at my site, I use dvips and lpr. For example:
dvips -Ppsc ref | lpr -Ppsc # print it on printer "psc".
If you don't have latex, you can ftp the pre-formatted PosytScript
versions of the documents; see "../misc/FTP" for information about
ftp-ing Python files.
versions of the documents. It should be in the same place where you
fetched the main Python distribution, if you got it by ftp. (See
"../Misc/FAQ" for information about ftp-ing Python files.)
Making the INFO version of the Library Reference
------------------------------------------------
@ -43,44 +47,35 @@ The Library Reference can now also be read in hypertext form using the
Emacs INFO system. This uses Texinfo format as an intermediate step.
It requires texinfo version 2 (we have used 2.14).
To build the info files (python-lib.info*), say "make libinfo". This
To build the info files (python-lib.info*), say "make lib.info". This
takes a while, even on machines with 33 MIPS and 16 Mbytes :-) You can
ignore the output.
But first you'll have to change a site dependency in fix.el: if
texinfo 2.xx is installed by default at your site, comment out the two
lines starting with "(setq load-path"; if it isn't, change the path!
(I'm afraid that if you don't have texinfo 2.xx this won't work -- use
archie to locate a version and ftp to fetch it.)
texinfo 2.xx isn't installed by default at your site, you'll have to
install it (use archie to locate a version and ftp to fetch it). If
you can't install it in the standard Emacs load path, uncomment the
line containing a "(setq load-path ...)" statement, and fill in the
path where you put it.
The files used by the conversion process are:
partparse.py the dirty-written Python script that converts
LaTeX sources to texi files. Output is left in
`@out.texi'
partparse.py Python script that converts LaTeX sources to
texi files.
texi{pre,post}.dat these files will be put before and after the
result
texi{pre,post}.dat Files placed before and after the result.
fix.sh calls emacs in order to update all the nodes and
menus. After this, makeinfo will convert the
texinfo-source to the info-file(s). Assumption:
the texi-source is called `@out.texi'
fix.el the elisp-file executed by emacs. Two calls to
fix.el Elisp file executed by Emacs. Two calls to
'texinfo-all-menus-update are necessary in
some cases
some cases.
fix_hack executable shell script that fixes the results
of the underscore hack. {\ptt \char'137} is
back-translated to a simple underscore. This is
needed for the texindex program
fix_hack Shell script to fix the results of the
"underscore hack". {\ptt \char'137} is
back-translated to a simple underscore. This
is needed for the texindex program.
handy.el some handy Emacs-macro's that helped converting
``old'' documentation to a format that could be
understood by the converter scipt (partparse.py).
(You don't really need this, but, as the name
says, these macros are "handy")
whichlibs Shell script to print a list of lib*.tex files
to be processed.
A Million thanks for Jan-Hein B\"uhrman for writing and debugging the
convertor and related scripts, and for fixing the LaTeX sources and

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5
Doc/fix.el
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@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
; load the new texinfo package (2.xx) if not installed by default
; (setq load-path
; (cons "/ufs/jh/lib/emacs/texinfo-2.14" load-path))
(find-file "lib.texi")
; (setq load-path (cons "/ufs/guido/lib/emacs/texinfo-2.14" load-path))
(find-file "@lib.texi")
(texinfo-all-menus-update t)
(texinfo-all-menus-update t)

1
Doc/fix_hack
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@ -1 +1,2 @@
#!/bin/sh
sed -e 's/{\\ptt[ ]*\\char[ ]*'"'"'137}/_/g' <"$1" > "@$1" && mv "@$1" $1

6
Doc/info/texipre.dat
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@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ the language, see the Python Tutorial. The Python Reference Manual
gives a more formal definition of the language. (These manuals are not
yet available in INFO or Texinfo format.)
Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 by Stichting Mathematisch Centrum,
Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 by Stichting Mathematisch Centrum,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
All Rights Reserved
@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
@c The following two commands start the copyright page.
@page
@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
Copyright @copyright{} 1991, 1992, 1993 by Stichting Mathematisch Centrum,
Copyright @copyright{} 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 by Stichting Mathematisch Centrum,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
@center All Rights Reserved
@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ the language, see the @cite{Python Tutorial}. The @cite{Python
Reference Manual} gives a more formal definition of the language.
(These manuals are not yet available in INFO or Texinfo format.)
This version corresponds roughly to Python version 1.0 (yet to be released).
This version corresponds to Python version 1.0.2.
@end ifinfo

89
Doc/lib.tex
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@ -1,9 +1,6 @@
\documentstyle[twoside,11pt,myformat]{report}
%\includeonly{lib5}
\title{\bf
Python Library Reference
}
\title{Python Library Reference}
\author{
Guido van Rossum \\
@ -12,14 +9,13 @@
E-mail: {\tt guido@cwi.nl}
}
\date{19 November 1993 \\ Release 0.9.9.++} % XXX update before release!
\date{14 Jul 1994 \\ Release 1.0.3} % XXX update before release!
\makeindex % tell \index to actually write the .idx file
% Tell \index to actually write the .idx file
\makeindex
\begin{document}
%\showthe\fam
%\showthe\ttfam
\pagenumbering{roman}
\maketitle
@ -46,12 +42,75 @@ language.
\pagebreak
\pagenumbering{arabic}
\include{lib1} % intro; built-in types, functions and exceptions
\include{lib2} % built-in modules
\include{lib3} % standard modules
\include{lib4} % Most OS'es; UNIX only; Amoeba only
\include{lib5} % STDWIN only; SGI machines only; SUNs only; AUDIO TOOLS
\input{lib.ind} % The index
% Chapter title:
\input{libintro} % Introduction
\input{libobjs} % Built-in Types, Exceptions and Functions
\input{libtypes}
\input{libexcs}
\input{libfuncs}
\input{libmods} % Built-in modules
\input{libsys}
\input{libbltin} % really __builtin__
\input{libmain} % really __main__
\input{libarray}
\input{libmath}
\input{libtime}
\input{libregex}
\input{libmarshal}
\input{libstruct}
\input{libstd} % Standard Modules
\input{libgetopt}
\input{libos}
\input{librand}
\input{libregsub}
\input{libstring}
\input{libwhrandom}
\input{libunix} % UNIX ONLY
\input{libdbm}
\input{libfcntl}
\input{libgrp}
\input{libposix}
\input{libposixfile} % XXX this uses lineii which partparse.py doesn't know
\input{libppath} % really posixpath
\input{libpwd}
\input{libselect}
\input{libsocket}
\input{libthread}
\input{libmm} % MULTIMEDIA EXTENSIONS
\input{libaudioop}
\input{libimageop}
\input{libjpeg}
\input{librgbimg}
\input{libcrypto} % CRYPTOGRAPHIC EXTENSIONS
\input{libmd5}
\input{libmpz}
\input{librotor}
%\input{libamoeba} % AMOEBA ONLY
%\input{libmac} % MACINTOSH ONLY
\input{libstdwin} % STDWIN ONLY
\input{libsgi} % SGI IRIX ONLY
\input{libal}
%\input{libaudio}
\input{libfl}
\input{libfm}
\input{libgl}
\input{libimgfile}
%\input{libpanel}
\input{libsun} % SUNOS ONLY
\input{lib.ind} % Index
\end{document}

89
Doc/lib/lib.tex
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@ -1,9 +1,6 @@
\documentstyle[twoside,11pt,myformat]{report}
%\includeonly{lib5}
\title{\bf
Python Library Reference
}
\title{Python Library Reference}
\author{
Guido van Rossum \\
@ -12,14 +9,13 @@
E-mail: {\tt guido@cwi.nl}
}
\date{19 November 1993 \\ Release 0.9.9.++} % XXX update before release!
\date{14 Jul 1994 \\ Release 1.0.3} % XXX update before release!
\makeindex % tell \index to actually write the .idx file
% Tell \index to actually write the .idx file
\makeindex
\begin{document}
%\showthe\fam
%\showthe\ttfam
\pagenumbering{roman}
\maketitle
@ -46,12 +42,75 @@ language.
\pagebreak
\pagenumbering{arabic}
\include{lib1} % intro; built-in types, functions and exceptions
\include{lib2} % built-in modules
\include{lib3} % standard modules
\include{lib4} % Most OS'es; UNIX only; Amoeba only
\include{lib5} % STDWIN only; SGI machines only; SUNs only; AUDIO TOOLS
\input{lib.ind} % The index
% Chapter title:
\input{libintro} % Introduction
\input{libobjs} % Built-in Types, Exceptions and Functions
\input{libtypes}
\input{libexcs}
\input{libfuncs}
\input{libmods} % Built-in modules
\input{libsys}
\input{libbltin} % really __builtin__
\input{libmain} % really __main__
\input{libarray}
\input{libmath}
\input{libtime}
\input{libregex}
\input{libmarshal}
\input{libstruct}
\input{libstd} % Standard Modules
\input{libgetopt}
\input{libos}
\input{librand}
\input{libregsub}
\input{libstring}
\input{libwhrandom}
\input{libunix} % UNIX ONLY
\input{libdbm}
\input{libfcntl}
\input{libgrp}
\input{libposix}
\input{libposixfile} % XXX this uses lineii which partparse.py doesn't know
\input{libppath} % really posixpath
\input{libpwd}
\input{libselect}
\input{libsocket}
\input{libthread}
\input{libmm} % MULTIMEDIA EXTENSIONS
\input{libaudioop}
\input{libimageop}
\input{libjpeg}
\input{librgbimg}
\input{libcrypto} % CRYPTOGRAPHIC EXTENSIONS
\input{libmd5}
\input{libmpz}
\input{librotor}
%\input{libamoeba} % AMOEBA ONLY
%\input{libmac} % MACINTOSH ONLY
\input{libstdwin} % STDWIN ONLY
\input{libsgi} % SGI IRIX ONLY
\input{libal}
%\input{libaudio}
\input{libfl}
\input{libfm}
\input{libgl}
\input{libimgfile}
%\input{libpanel}
\input{libsun} % SUNOS ONLY
\input{lib.ind} % Index
\end{document}

4
Doc/ref.tex
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
\documentstyle[twoside,11pt,myformat]{report}
\title{\bf Python Reference Manual}
\title{Python Reference Manual}
\author{
Guido van Rossum \\
@ -9,7 +9,7 @@
E-mail: {\tt guido@cwi.nl}
}
\date{19 November 1993 \\ Release 0.9.9.++} % XXX update before release!
\date{14 Jul 1994 \\ Release 1.0.3} % XXX update before release!
% Tell \index to actually write the .idx file
\makeindex

4
Doc/ref/ref.tex
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
\documentstyle[twoside,11pt,myformat]{report}
\title{\bf Python Reference Manual}
\title{Python Reference Manual}
\author{
Guido van Rossum \\
@ -9,7 +9,7 @@
E-mail: {\tt guido@cwi.nl}
}
\date{19 November 1993 \\ Release 0.9.9.++} % XXX update before release!
\date{14 Jul 1994 \\ Release 1.0.3} % XXX update before release!
% Tell \index to actually write the .idx file
\makeindex

20
Doc/ref/ref1.tex
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@ -43,22 +43,22 @@ name: lc_letter (lc_letter | "_")*
lc_letter: "a"..."z"
\end{verbatim}
The first line says that a \verb\name\ is an \verb\lc_letter\ followed by
a sequence of zero or more \verb\lc_letter\s and underscores. An
\verb\lc_letter\ in turn is any of the single characters `a' through `z'.
The first line says that a \verb@name@ is an \verb@lc_letter@ followed by
a sequence of zero or more \verb@lc_letter@s and underscores. An
\verb@lc_letter@ in turn is any of the single characters `a' through `z'.
(This rule is actually adhered to for the names defined in lexical and
grammar rules in this document.)
Each rule begins with a name (which is the name defined by the rule)
and a colon. A vertical bar (\verb\|\) is used to separate
and a colon. A vertical bar (\verb@|@) is used to separate
alternatives; it is the least binding operator in this notation. A
star (\verb\*\) means zero or more repetitions of the preceding item;
likewise, a plus (\verb\+\) means one or more repetitions, and a
phrase enclosed in square brackets (\verb\[ ]\) means zero or one
star (\verb@*@) means zero or more repetitions of the preceding item;
likewise, a plus (\verb@+@) means one or more repetitions, and a
phrase enclosed in square brackets (\verb@[ ]@) means zero or one
occurrences (in other words, the enclosed phrase is optional). The
\verb\*\ and \verb\+\ operators bind as tightly as possible;
\verb@*@ and \verb@+@ operators bind as tightly as possible;
parentheses are used for grouping. Literal strings are enclosed in
double quotes. White space is only meaningful to separate tokens.
quotes. White space is only meaningful to separate tokens.
Rules are normally contained on a single line; rules with many
alternatives may be formatted alternatively with each line after the
first beginning with a vertical bar.
@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ first beginning with a vertical bar.
In lexical definitions (as the example above), two more conventions
are used: Two literal characters separated by three dots mean a choice
of any single character in the given (inclusive) range of ASCII
characters. A phrase between angular brackets (\verb\<...>\) gives an
characters. A phrase between angular brackets (\verb@<...>@) gives an
informal description of the symbol defined; e.g. this could be used
to describe the notion of `control character' if needed.
\index{lexical definitions}

92
Doc/ref/ref2.tex
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@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ syntax (e.g. between statements in compound statements).
\subsection{Comments}
A comment starts with a hash character (\verb\#\) that is not part of
A comment starts with a hash character (\verb@#@) that is not part of
a string literal, and ends at the end of the physical line. A comment
always signifies the end of the logical line. Comments are ignored by
the syntax.
@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ the syntax.
\index{physical line}
\index{hash character}
\subsection{Line joining}
\subsection{Explicit line joining}
Two or more physical lines may be joined into logical lines using
backslash characters (\verb/\/), as follows: when a physical line ends
@ -37,15 +37,37 @@ joined with the following forming a single logical line, deleting the
backslash and the following end-of-line character. For example:
\index{physical line}
\index{line joining}
\index{line continuation}
\index{backslash character}
%
\begin{verbatim}
month_names = ['Januari', 'Februari', 'Maart', \
'April', 'Mei', 'Juni', \
'Juli', 'Augustus', 'September', \
'Oktober', 'November', 'December']
if 1900 < year < 2100 and 1 <= month <= 12 \
and 1 <= day <= 31 and 0 <= hour < 24 \
and 0 <= minute < 60 and 0 <= second < 60: # Looks like a valid date
return 1
\end{verbatim}
A line ending in a backslash cannot carry a comment; a backslash does
not continue a comment (but it does continue a string literal, see
below).
\subsection{Implicit line joining}
Expressions in parentheses, square brackets or curly braces can be
split over more than one physical line without using backslashes.
For example:
\begin{verbatim}
month_names = ['Januari', 'Februari', 'Maart', # These are the
'April', 'Mei', 'Juni', # Dutch names
'Juli', 'Augustus', 'September', # for the months
'Oktober', 'November', 'December'] # of the year
\end{verbatim}
Implicitly continued lines can carry comments. The indentation of the
continuation lines is not important. Blank continuation lines are
allowed.
\subsection{Blank lines}
A logical line that contains only spaces, tabs, and possibly a
@ -123,7 +145,7 @@ The following example shows various indentation errors:
(Actually, the first three errors are detected by the parser; only the
last error is found by the lexical analyzer --- the indentation of
\verb\return r\ does not match a level popped off the stack.)
\verb@return r@ does not match a level popped off the stack.)
\section{Other tokens}
@ -159,26 +181,15 @@ identifiers. They must be spelled exactly as written here:
\index{reserved word}
\begin{verbatim}
and del for in print
break elif from is raise
class else global not return
continue except if or try
def finally import pass while
access del from lambda return
and elif global not try
break else if or while
class except import pass
continue finally in print
def for is raise
\end{verbatim}
% # This Python program sorts and formats the above table
% import string
% l = []
% try:
% while 1:
% l = l + string.split(raw_input())
% except EOFError:
% pass
% l.sort()
% for i in range((len(l)+4)/5):
% for j in range(i, len(l), 5):
% print string.ljust(l[j], 10),
% print
% When adding keywords, pipe it through keywords.py for reformatting
\section{Literals} \label{literals}
@ -192,17 +203,24 @@ String literals are described by the following lexical definitions:
\index{string literal}
\begin{verbatim}
stringliteral: "'" stringitem* "'"
stringitem: stringchar | escapeseq
stringchar: <any ASCII character except newline or "\" or "'">
escapeseq: "'" <any ASCII character except newline>
stringliteral: shortstring | longstring
shortstring: "'" shortstringitem* "'" | '"' shortstringitem* '"'
longstring: "'''" longstringitem* "'''" | '"""' longstringitem* '"""'
shortstringitem: shortstringchar | escapeseq
shortstringchar: <any ASCII character except "\" or newline or the quote>
longstringchar: <any ASCII character except "\">
escapeseq: "\" <any ASCII character>
\end{verbatim}
\index{ASCII}
String literals cannot span physical line boundaries. Escape
sequences in strings are actually interpreted according to rules
similar to those used by Standard C. The recognized escape sequences
are:
In ``long strings'' (strings surrounded by sets of three quotes),
unescaped newlines and quotes are allowed (and are retained), except
that three unescaped quotes in a row terminate the string. (A
``quote'' is the character used to open the string, i.e. either
\verb/'/ or \verb/"/.)
Escape sequences in strings are interpreted according to rules similar
to those used by Standard C. The recognized escape sequences are:
\index{physical line}
\index{escape sequence}
\index{Standard C}
@ -211,8 +229,10 @@ are:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|l|l|}
\hline
\verb/\/{\em newline} & Ignored \\
\verb/\\/ & Backslash (\verb/\/) \\
\verb/\'/ & Single quote (\verb/'/) \\
\verb/\"/ & Double quote (\verb/"/) \\
\verb/\a/ & ASCII Bell (BEL) \\
\verb/\b/ & ASCII Backspace (BS) \\
%\verb/\E/ & ASCII Escape (ESC) \\
@ -309,8 +329,8 @@ Some examples of floating point literals:
\end{verbatim}
Note that numeric literals do not include a sign; a phrase like
\verb\-1\ is actually an expression composed of the operator
\verb\-\ and the literal \verb\1\.
\verb@-1@ is actually an expression composed of the operator
\verb@-@ and the literal \verb@1@.
\section{Operators}
@ -323,7 +343,7 @@ The following tokens are operators:
< == > <= <> != >=
\end{verbatim}
The comparison operators \verb\<>\ and \verb\!=\ are alternate
The comparison operators \verb@<>@ and \verb@!=@ are alternate
spellings of the same operator.
\section{Delimiters}

220
Doc/ref/ref3.tex
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@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ Some objects contain references to ``external'' resources such as open
files or windows. It is understood that these resources are freed
when the object is garbage-collected, but since garbage collection is
not guaranteed to happen, such objects also provide an explicit way to
release the external resource, usually a \verb\close\ method.
release the external resource, usually a \verb@close@ method.
Programs are strongly recommended to always explicitly close such
objects.
@ -69,8 +69,8 @@ objects this is not allowed. E.g. after
a = 1; b = 1; c = []; d = []
\end{verbatim}
\verb\a\ and \verb\b\ may or may not refer to the same object with the
value one, depending on the implementation, but \verb\c\ and \verb\d\
\verb@a@ and \verb@b@ may or may not refer to the same object with the
value one, depending on the implementation, but \verb@c@ and \verb@d@
are guaranteed to refer to two different, unique, newly created empty
lists.
@ -90,9 +90,9 @@ Some of the type descriptions below contain a paragraph listing
`special attributes'. These are attributes that provide access to the
implementation and are not intended for general use. Their definition
may change in the future. There are also some `generic' special
attributes, not listed with the individual objects: \verb\__methods__\
attributes, not listed with the individual objects: \verb@__methods__@
is a list of the method names of a built-in object, if it has any;
\verb\__members__\ is a list of the data attribute names of a built-in
\verb@__members__@ is a list of the data attribute names of a built-in
object, if it has any.
\index{attribute}
\indexii{special}{attribute}
@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ object, if it has any.
\item[None]
This type has a single value. There is a single object with this value.
This object is accessed through the built-in name \verb\None\.
This object is accessed through the built-in name \verb@None@.
It is returned from functions that don't explicitly return an object.
\ttindex{None}
\obindex{None@{\tt None}}
@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ These represent numbers in the range $-2^{31}$ through $2^{31}-1$.
(The range may be larger on machines with a larger natural word
size, but not smaller.)
When the result of an operation falls outside this range, the
exception \verb\OverflowError\ is raised.
exception \verb@OverflowError@ is raised.
For the purpose of shift and mask operations, integers are assumed to
have a binary, 2's complement notation using 32 or more bits, and
hiding no bits from the user (i.e., all $2^{32}$ different bit
@ -172,17 +172,17 @@ C implementation for the accepted range and handling of overflow.
\item[Sequences]
These represent finite ordered sets indexed by natural numbers.
The built-in function \verb\len()\ returns the number of elements
The built-in function \verb@len()@ returns the number of elements
of a sequence. When this number is $n$, the index set contains
the numbers $0, 1, \ldots, n-1$. Element \verb\i\ of sequence
\verb\a\ is selected by \verb\a[i]\.
the numbers $0, 1, \ldots, n-1$. Element \verb@i@ of sequence
\verb@a@ is selected by \verb@a[i]@.
\obindex{seqence}
\bifuncindex{len}
\index{index operation}
\index{item selection}
\index{subscription}
Sequences also support slicing: \verb\a[i:j]\ selects all elements
Sequences also support slicing: \verb@a[i:j]@ selects all elements
with index $k$ such that $i <= k < j$. When used as an expression,
a slice is a sequence of the same type --- this implies that the
index set is renumbered so that it starts at 0 again.
@ -209,7 +209,7 @@ The following types are immutable sequences:
The elements of a string are characters. There is no separate
character type; a character is represented by a string of one element.
Characters represent (at least) 8-bit bytes. The built-in
functions \verb\chr()\ and \verb\ord()\ convert between characters
functions \verb@chr()@ and \verb@ord()@ convert between characters
and nonnegative integers representing the byte values.
Bytes with the values 0-127 represent the corresponding ASCII values.
The string data type is also used to represent arrays of bytes, e.g.
@ -223,7 +223,7 @@ to hold data read from a file.
(On systems whose native character set is not ASCII, strings may use
EBCDIC in their internal representation, provided the functions
\verb\chr()\ and \verb\ord()\ implement a mapping between ASCII and
\verb@chr()@ and \verb@ord()@ implement a mapping between ASCII and
EBCDIC, and string comparison preserves the ASCII order.
Or perhaps someone can propose a better rule?)
\index{ASCII}
@ -250,7 +250,7 @@ parentheses.
\item[Mutable sequences]
Mutable sequences can be changed after they are created. The
subscription and slicing notations can be used as the target of
assignment and \verb\del\ (delete) statements.
assignment and \verb@del@ (delete) statements.
\obindex{mutable sequece}
\obindex{mutable}
\indexii{assignment}{statement}
@ -276,10 +276,10 @@ or 1.)
\item[Mapping types]
These represent finite sets of objects indexed by arbitrary index sets.
The subscript notation \verb\a[k]\ selects the element indexed
by \verb\k\ from the mapping \verb\a\; this can be used in
expressions and as the target of assignments or \verb\del\ statements.
The built-in function \verb\len()\ returns the number of elements
The subscript notation \verb@a[k]@ selects the element indexed
by \verb@k@ from the mapping \verb@a@; this can be used in
expressions and as the target of assignments or \verb@del@ statements.
The built-in function \verb@len()@ returns the number of elements
in a mapping.
\bifuncindex{len}
\index{subscription}
@ -299,7 +299,7 @@ Numeric types used for keys obey the normal rules for numeric
comparison: if two numbers compare equal (e.g. 1 and 1.0) then they
can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.
Dictionaries are mutable; they are created by the \verb\{...}\
Dictionaries are mutable; they are created by the \verb@{...}@
notation (see section \ref{dict}).
\obindex{dictionary}
\obindex{mutable}
@ -308,7 +308,7 @@ notation (see section \ref{dict}).
\item[Callable types]
These are the types to which the function call (invocation) operation,
written as \verb\function(argument, argument, ...)\, can be applied:
written as \verb@function(argument, argument, ...)@, can be applied:
\indexii{function}{call}
\index{invocation}
\indexii{function}{argument}
@ -325,8 +325,8 @@ parameter list.
\obindex{function}
\obindex{user-defined function}
Special read-only attributes: \verb\func_code\ is the code object
representing the compiled function body, and \verb\func_globals\ is (a
Special read-only attributes: \verb@func_code@ is the code object
representing the compiled function body, and \verb@func_globals@ is (a
reference to) the dictionary that holds the function's global
variables --- it implements the global name space of the module in
which the function was defined.
@ -346,14 +346,14 @@ shifted one to the right.
\indexii{user-defined}{method}
\index{object closure}
Special read-only attributes: \verb\im_self\ is the class instance
object, \verb\im_func\ is the function object.
Special read-only attributes: \verb@im_self@ is the class instance
object, \verb@im_func@ is the function object.
\ttindex{im_func}
\ttindex{im_self}
\item[Built-in functions]
A built-in function object is a wrapper around a C function. Examples
of built-in functions are \verb\len\ and \verb\math.sin\. There
of built-in functions are \verb@len@ and \verb@math.sin@. There
are no special attributes. The number and type of the arguments are
determined by the C function.
\obindex{built-in function}
@ -363,18 +363,20 @@ determined by the C function.
\item[Built-in methods]
This is really a different disguise of a built-in function, this time
containing an object passed to the C function as an implicit extra
argument. An example of a built-in method is \verb\list.append\ if
\verb\list\ is a list object.
argument. An example of a built-in method is \verb@list.append@ if
\verb@list@ is a list object.
\obindex{built-in method}
\obindex{method}
\indexii{built-in}{method}
\item[Classes]
Class objects are described below. When a class object is called as a
parameterless function, a new class instance (also described below) is
created and returned. The class's initialization function is not
called --- this is the responsibility of the caller. It is illegal to
call a class object with one or more arguments.
function, a new class instance (also described below) is created and
returned. This implies a call to the class's \verb@__init__@ method
if it has one. Any arguments are passed on to the \verb@__init__@
method -- if there is \verb@__init__@ method, the class must be called
without arguments.
\ttindex{__init__}
\obindex{class}
\obindex{class instance}
\obindex{instance}
@ -383,10 +385,10 @@ call a class object with one or more arguments.
\end{description}
\item[Modules]
Modules are imported by the \verb\import\ statement (see section
Modules are imported by the \verb@import@ statement (see section
\ref{import}). A module object is a container for a module's name
space, which is a dictionary (the same dictionary as referenced by the
\verb\func_globals\ attribute of functions defined in the module).
\verb@func_globals@ attribute of functions defined in the module).
Module attribute references are translated to lookups in this
dictionary. A module object does not contain the code object used to
initialize the module (since it isn't needed once the initialization
@ -396,8 +398,8 @@ is done).
Attribute assignment update the module's name space dictionary.
Special read-only attributes: \verb\__dict__\ yields the module's name
space as a dictionary object; \verb\__name__\ yields the module's name
Special read-only attributes: \verb@__dict__@ yields the module's name
space as a dictionary object; \verb@__name__@ yields the module's name
as a string object.
\ttindex{__dict__}
\ttindex{__name__}
@ -423,12 +425,12 @@ Class attribute assignments update the class's dictionary, never the
dictionary of a base class.
\indexiii{class}{attribute}{assignment}
A class can be called as a parameterless function to yield a class
instance (see above).
A class can be called as a function to yield a class instance (see
above).
\indexii{class object}{call}
Special read-only attributes: \verb\__dict__\ yields the dictionary
containing the class's name space; \verb\__bases__\ yields a tuple
Special read-only attributes: \verb@__dict__@ yields the dictionary
containing the class's name space; \verb@__bases__@ yields a tuple
(possibly empty or a singleton) containing the base classes, in the
order of their occurrence in the base class list.
\ttindex{__dict__}
@ -436,7 +438,7 @@ order of their occurrence in the base class list.
\item[Class instances]
A class instance is created by calling a class object as a
parameterless function. A class instance has a dictionary in which
function. A class instance has a dictionary in which
attribute references are searched. When an attribute is not found
there, and the instance's class has an attribute by that name, and
that class attribute is a user-defined function (and in no other
@ -457,17 +459,17 @@ section \ref{specialnames}.
\obindex{sequence}
\obindex{mapping}
Special read-only attributes: \verb\__dict__\ yields the attribute
dictionary; \verb\__class__\ yields the instance's class.
Special read-only attributes: \verb@__dict__@ yields the attribute
dictionary; \verb@__class__@ yields the instance's class.
\ttindex{__dict__}
\ttindex{__class__}
\item[Files]
A file object represents an open file. (It is a wrapper around a C
{\tt stdio} file pointer.) File objects are created by the
\verb\open()\ built-in function, and also by \verb\posix.popen()\ and
the \verb\makefile\ method of socket objects. \verb\sys.stdin\,
\verb\sys.stdout\ and \verb\sys.stderr\ are file objects corresponding
\verb@open()@ built-in function, and also by \verb@posix.popen()@ and
the \verb@makefile@ method of socket objects. \verb@sys.stdin@,
\verb@sys.stdout@ and \verb@sys.stderr@ are file objects corresponding
the the interpreter's standard input, output and error streams.
See the Python Library Reference for methods of file objects and other
details.
@ -500,12 +502,12 @@ was defined) which a code object contains no context. There is no way
to execute a bare code object.
\obindex{code}
Special read-only attributes: \verb\co_code\ is a string representing
the sequence of instructions; \verb\co_consts\ is a list of literals
used by the code; \verb\co_names\ is a list of names (strings) used by
the code; \verb\co_filename\ is the filename from which the code was
Special read-only attributes: \verb@co_code@ is a string representing
the sequence of instructions; \verb@co_consts@ is a list of literals
used by the code; \verb@co_names@ is a list of names (strings) used by
the code; \verb@co_filename@ is the filename from which the code was
compiled. (To find out the line numbers, you would have to decode the
instructions; the standard library module \verb\dis\ contains an
instructions; the standard library module \verb@dis@ contains an
example of how to do this.)
\ttindex{co_code}
\ttindex{co_consts}
@ -517,12 +519,12 @@ Frame objects represent execution frames. They may occur in traceback
objects (see below).
\obindex{frame}
Special read-only attributes: \verb\f_back\ is to the previous
stack frame (towards the caller), or \verb\None\ if this is the bottom
stack frame; \verb\f_code\ is the code object being executed in this
frame; \verb\f_globals\ is the dictionary used to look up global
variables; \verb\f_locals\ is used for local variables;
\verb\f_lineno\ gives the line number and \verb\f_lasti\ gives the
Special read-only attributes: \verb@f_back@ is to the previous
stack frame (towards the caller), or \verb@None@ if this is the bottom
stack frame; \verb@f_code@ is the code object being executed in this
frame; \verb@f_globals@ is the dictionary used to look up global
variables; \verb@f_locals@ is used for local variables;
\verb@f_lineno@ gives the line number and \verb@f_lasti@ gives the
precise instruction (this is an index into the instruction string of
the code object).
\ttindex{f_back}
@ -539,11 +541,11 @@ for an exception handler unwinds the execution stack, at each unwound
level a traceback object is inserted in front of the current
traceback. When an exception handler is entered
(see also section \ref{try}), the stack trace is
made available to the program as \verb\sys.exc_traceback\. When the
made available to the program as \verb@sys.exc_traceback@. When the
program contains no suitable handler, the stack trace is written
(nicely formatted) to the standard error stream; if the interpreter is
interactive, it is also made available to the user as
\verb\sys.last_traceback\.
\verb@sys.last_traceback@.
\obindex{traceback}
\indexii{stack}{trace}
\indexii{exception}{handler}
@ -553,15 +555,15 @@ interactive, it is also made available to the user as
\ttindex{sys.exc_traceback}
\ttindex{sys.last_traceback}
Special read-only attributes: \verb\tb_next\ is the next level in the
Special read-only attributes: \verb@tb_next@ is the next level in the
stack trace (towards the frame where the exception occurred), or
\verb\None\ if there is no next level; \verb\tb_frame\ points to the
execution frame of the current level; \verb\tb_lineno\ gives the line
number where the exception occurred; \verb\tb_lasti\ indicates the
\verb@None@ if there is no next level; \verb@tb_frame@ points to the
execution frame of the current level; \verb@tb_lineno@ gives the line
number where the exception occurred; \verb@tb_lasti@ indicates the
precise instruction. The line number and last instruction in the
traceback may differ from the line number of its frame object if the
exception occurred in a \verb\try\ statement with no matching
\verb\except\ clause or with a \verb\finally\ clause.
exception occurred in a \verb@try@ statement with no matching
\verb@except@ clause or with a \verb@finally@ clause.
\ttindex{tb_next}
\ttindex{tb_frame}
\ttindex{tb_lineno}
@ -578,17 +580,19 @@ exception occurred in a \verb\try\ statement with no matching
A class can implement certain operations that are invoked by special
syntax (such as subscription or arithmetic operations) by defining
methods with special names. For instance, if a class defines a
method named \verb\__getitem__\, and \verb\x\ is an instance of this
class, then \verb\x[i]\ is equivalent to \verb\x.__getitem__(i)\.
(The reverse is not true --- if \verb\x\ is a list object,
\verb\x.__getitem__(i)\ is not equivalent to \verb\x[i]\.)
method named \verb@__getitem__@, and \verb@x@ is an instance of this
class, then \verb@x[i]@ is equivalent to \verb@x.__getitem__(i)@.
(The reverse is not true --- if \verb@x@ is a list object,
\verb@x.__getitem__(i)@ is not equivalent to \verb@x[i]@.)
Except for \verb\__repr__\, \verb\__str__\ and \verb\__cmp__\,
Except for \verb@__repr__@, \verb@__str__@ and \verb@__cmp__@,
attempts to execute an
operation raise an exception when no appropriate method is defined.
For \verb\__repr__\ and \verb\__cmp__\, the traditional
interpretations are used in this case.
For \verb\__str__\, the \verb\__repr__\ method is used.
For \verb@__repr__@, the default is to return a string describing the
object's class and address.
For \verb@__cmp__@, the default is to compare instances based on their
address.
For \verb@__str__@, the default is to use \verb@__repr__@.
\subsection{Special methods for any type}
@ -614,17 +618,17 @@ reference is deleted. Also note that it is not guaranteed that
the interpreter exits.
\item[\tt __repr__(self)]
Called by the \verb\repr()\ built-in function and by conversions
Called by the \verb@repr()@ built-in function and by conversions
(reverse quotes) to compute the string representation of an object.
\item[\tt __str__(self)]
Called by the \verb\str()\ built-in function and by the \verb\print\
Called by the \verb@str()@ built-in function and by the \verb@print@
statement compute the string representation of an object.
\item[\tt __cmp__(self, other)]
Called by all comparison operations. Should return -1 if
\verb\self < other\, 0 if \verb\self == other\, +1 if
\verb\self > other\. If no \code{__cmp__} operation is defined, class
\verb@self < other@, 0 if \verb@self == other@, +1 if
\verb@self > other@. If no \code{__cmp__} operation is defined, class
instances are compared by object identity (``address'').
(Implementation note: due to limitations in the interpreter,
exceptions raised by comparisons are ignored, and the objects will be
@ -654,23 +658,23 @@ key's hash value is a constant.
\begin{description}
\item[\tt __len__(self)]
Called to implement the built-in function \verb\len()\. Should return
the length of the object, an integer \verb\>=\ 0. Also, an object
whose \verb\__len__()\ method returns 0 is considered to be false in a
Called to implement the built-in function \verb@len()@. Should return
the length of the object, an integer \verb@>=@ 0. Also, an object
whose \verb@__len__()@ method returns 0 is considered to be false in a
Boolean context.
\item[\tt __getitem__(self, key)]
Called to implement evaluation of \verb\self[key]\. Note that the
Called to implement evaluation of \verb@self[key]@. Note that the
special interpretation of negative keys (if the class wishes to
emulate a sequence type) is up to the \verb\__getitem__\ method.
emulate a sequence type) is up to the \verb@__getitem__@ method.
\item[\tt __setitem__(self, key, value)]
Called to implement assignment to \verb\self[key]\. Same note as for
\verb\__getitem__\.
Called to implement assignment to \verb@self[key]@. Same note as for
\verb@__getitem__@.
\item[\tt __delitem__(self, key)]
Called to implement deletion of \verb\self[key]\. Same note as for
\verb\__getitem__\.
Called to implement deletion of \verb@self[key]@. Same note as for
\verb@__getitem__@.
\end{description}
@ -680,19 +684,19 @@ Called to implement deletion of \verb\self[key]\. Same note as for
\begin{description}
\item[\tt __getslice__(self, i, j)]
Called to implement evaluation of \verb\self[i:j]\. Note that missing
\verb\i\ or \verb\j\ are replaced by 0 or \verb\len(self)\,
respectively, and \verb\len(self)\ has been added (once) to originally
negative \verb\i\ or \verb\j\ by the time this function is called
(unlike for \verb\__getitem__\).
Called to implement evaluation of \verb@self[i:j]@. Note that missing
\verb@i@ or \verb@j@ are replaced by 0 or \verb@len(self)@,
respectively, and \verb@len(self)@ has been added (once) to originally
negative \verb@i@ or \verb@j@ by the time this function is called
(unlike for \verb@__getitem__@).
\item[\tt __setslice__(self, i, j, sequence)]
Called to implement assignment to \verb\self[i:j]\. Same notes as for
\verb\__getslice__\.
Called to implement assignment to \verb@self[i:j]@. Same notes as for
\verb@__getslice__@.
\item[\tt __delslice__(self, i, j)]
Called to implement deletion of \verb\self[i:j]\. Same notes as for
\verb\__getslice__\.
Called to implement deletion of \verb@self[i:j]@. Same notes as for
\verb@__getslice__@.
\end{description}
@ -713,20 +717,20 @@ Called to implement deletion of \verb\self[i:j]\. Same notes as for
\item[\tt __and__(self, other)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __xor__(self, other)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __or__(self, other)]\itembreak
Called to implement the binary arithmetic operations (\verb\+\,
\verb\-\, \verb\*\, \verb\/\, \verb\%\, \verb\divmod()\, \verb\pow()\,
\verb\<<\, \verb\>>\, \verb\&\, \verb\^\, \verb\|\).
Called to implement the binary arithmetic operations (\verb@+@,
\verb@-@, \verb@*@, \verb@/@, \verb@%@, \verb@divmod()@, \verb@pow()@,
\verb@<<@, \verb@>>@, \verb@&@, \verb@^@, \verb@|@).
\item[\tt __neg__(self)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __pos__(self)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __abs__(self)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __invert__(self)]\itembreak
Called to implement the unary arithmetic operations (\verb\-\, \verb\+\,
\verb\abs()\ and \verb\~\).
Called to implement the unary arithmetic operations (\verb@-@, \verb@+@,
\verb@abs()@ and \verb@~@).
\item[\tt __nonzero__(self)]
Called to implement boolean testing; should return 0 or 1. An
alternative name for this method is \verb\__len__\.
alternative name for this method is \verb@__len__@.
\item[\tt __coerce__(self, other)]
Called to implement ``mixed-mode'' numeric arithmetic. Should either
@ -737,11 +741,11 @@ interpreter will also ask the other object to attempt a coercion (but
sometimes, if the implementation of the other type cannot be changed,
it is useful to do the conversion to the other type here).
Note that this method is not called to coerce the arguments to \verb\+\
and \verb\*\, because these are also used to implement sequence
Note that this method is not called to coerce the arguments to \verb@+@
and \verb@*@, because these are also used to implement sequence
concatenation and repetition, respectively. Also note that, for the
same reason, in \verb\n*x\, where \verb\n\ is a built-in number and
\verb\x\ is an instance, a call to \verb\x.__mul__(n)\ is made.%
same reason, in \verb@n*x@, where \verb@n@ is a built-in number and
\verb@x@ is an instance, a call to \verb@x.__mul__(n)@ is made.%
\footnote{The interpreter should really distinguish between
user-defined classes implementing sequences, mappings or numbers, but
currently it doesn't --- hence this strange exception.}
@ -749,12 +753,12 @@ currently it doesn't --- hence this strange exception.}
\item[\tt __int__(self)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __long__(self)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __float__(self)]\itembreak
Called to implement the built-in functions \verb\int()\, \verb\long()\
and \verb\float()\. Should return a value of the appropriate type.
Called to implement the built-in functions \verb@int()@, \verb@long()@
and \verb@float()@. Should return a value of the appropriate type.
\item[\tt __oct__(self)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __hex__(self)]\itembreak
Called to implement the built-in functions \verb\oct()\ and
\verb\hex()\. Should return a string value.
Called to implement the built-in functions \verb@oct()@ and
\verb@hex()@. Should return a string value.
\end{description}

55
Doc/ref/ref4.tex
View File

@ -20,9 +20,9 @@ The following are code blocks: A module is a code block. A function
body is a code block. A class definition is a code block. Each
command typed interactively is a separate code block; a script file is
a code block. The string argument passed to the built-in function
\verb\eval\ and to the \verb\exec\ statement are code blocks.
\verb@eval@ and to the \verb@exec@ statement are code blocks.
And finally, the
expression read and evaluated by the built-in function \verb\input\ is
expression read and evaluated by the built-in function \verb@input@ is
a code block.
A code block is executed in an execution frame. An {\em execution
@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ Name spaces are functionally equivalent to dictionaries.
The {\em local name space} of an execution frame determines the default
place where names are defined and searched. The {\em global name
space} determines the place where names listed in \verb\global\
space} determines the place where names listed in \verb@global@
statements are defined and searched, and where names that are not
explicitly bound in the current code block are searched.
\indexii{local}{name space}
@ -55,25 +55,35 @@ explicitly bound in the current code block are searched.
Whether a name is local or global in a code block is determined by
static inspection of the source text for the code block: in the
absence of \verb\global\ statements, a name that is bound anywhere in
absence of \verb@global@ statements, a name that is bound anywhere in
the code block is local in the entire code block; all other names are
considered global. The \verb\global\ statement forces global
considered global. The \verb@global@ statement forces global
interpretation of selected names throughout the code block. The
following constructs bind names: formal parameters, \verb\import\
following constructs bind names: formal parameters, \verb@import@
statements, class and function definitions (these bind the class or
function name), and targets that are identifiers if occurring in an
assignment, \verb\for\ loop header, or \verb\except\ clause header.
(A target occurring in a \verb\del\ statement does not bind a name.)
assignment, \verb@for@ loop header, or \verb@except@ clause header.
A target occurring in a \verb@del@ statement is also considered bound
for this purpose (though the actual semantics are to ``unbind'' the
name).
When a global name is not found in the global name space, it is
searched in the list of ``built-in'' names (which is actually the
global name space of the module \verb\__builtin__\). When a name is not
found at all, the \verb\NameError\ exception is raised.
global name space of the module \verb@__builtin__@). When a name is not
found at all, the \verb@NameError@ exception is raised.%
\footnote{If the code block contains \verb@exec@ statement or the
construct \verb@from ... import *@, the semantics of names not
explicitly mentioned in a \verb@global@ statement change subtly: name
lookup first searches the local name space, then the global one, then
the built-in one.}
The following table lists the meaning of the local and global name
space for various types of code blocks. The name space for a
particular module is automatically created when the module is first
referenced.
referenced. Note that in almost all cases, the global name space is
the name space of the containing module -- scopes in Python do not
nest!
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|l|}
@ -81,15 +91,18 @@ referenced.
Code block type & Global name space & Local name space & Notes \\
\hline
Module & n.s. for this module & same as global & \\
Script & n.s. for \verb\__main__\ & same as global & \\
Interactive command & n.s. for \verb\__main__\ & same as global & \\
Script & n.s. for \verb@__main__@ & same as global & \\
Interactive command & n.s. for \verb@__main__@ & same as global & \\
Class definition & global n.s. of containing block & new n.s. & \\
Function body & global n.s. of containing block & new n.s. & \\
String passed to \verb\exec\ or \verb\eval\
String passed to \verb@exec@ statement
& global n.s. of cobtaining block
& local n.s. of containing block & (1) \\
String passed to \verb@eval()@
& global n.s. of caller & local n.s. of caller & (1) \\
File read by \verb\execfile\
File read by \verb@execfile()@
& global n.s. of caller & local n.s. of caller & (1) \\
Expression read by \verb\input\
Expression read by \verb@input@
& global n.s. of caller & local n.s. of caller & \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
@ -101,7 +114,7 @@ Notes:
\item[n.s.] means {\em name space}
\item[(1)] The global and local name space for these functions can be
\item[(1)] The global and local name space for these can be
overridden with optional extra arguments.
\end{description}
@ -123,8 +136,8 @@ where the error occurred.
The Python interpreter raises an exception when it detects an run-time
error (such as division by zero). A Python program can also
explicitly raise an exception with the \verb\raise\ statement.
Exception handlers are specified with the \verb\try...except\
explicitly raise an exception with the \verb@raise@ statement.
Exception handlers are specified with the \verb@try...except@
statement.
Python uses the ``termination'' model of error handling: an exception
@ -139,10 +152,10 @@ execution of the program, or returns to its interactive main loop.
Exceptions are identified by string objects. Two different string
objects with the same value identify different exceptions.
When an exception is raised, an object (maybe \verb\None\) is passed
When an exception is raised, an object (maybe \verb@None@) is passed
as the exception's ``parameter''; this object does not affect the
selection of an exception handler, but is passed to the selected
exception handler as additional information.
See also the description of the \verb\try\ and \verb\raise\
See also the description of the \verb@try@ and \verb@raise@
statements.

137
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@ -12,14 +12,14 @@ may be used wherever an expression is required by enclosing it in
parentheses. The only places where expressions are used in the syntax
instead of conditions is in expression statements and on the
right-hand side of assignment statements; this catches some nasty bugs
like accidentally writing \verb\x == 1\ instead of \verb\x = 1\.
like accidentally writing \verb@x == 1@ instead of \verb@x = 1@.
\indexii{assignment}{statement}
The comma plays several roles in Python's syntax. It is usually an
operator with a lower precedence than all others, but occasionally
serves other purposes as well; e.g. it separates function arguments,
is used in list and dictionary constructors, and has special semantics
in \verb\print\ statements.
in \verb@print@ statements.
\index{comma}
When (one alternative of) a syntax rule has the form
@ -28,8 +28,8 @@ When (one alternative of) a syntax rule has the form
name: othername
\end{verbatim}
and no semantics are given, the semantics of this form of \verb\name\
are the same as for \verb\othername\.
and no semantics are given, the semantics of this form of \verb@name@
are the same as for \verb@othername@.
\index{syntax}
\section{Arithmetic conversions}
@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ are the same as for \verb\othername\.
When a description of an arithmetic operator below uses the phrase
``the numeric arguments are converted to a common type'',
this both means that if either argument is not a number, a
\verb\TypeError\ exception is raised, and that otherwise
\verb@TypeError@ exception is raised, and that otherwise
the following conversions are applied:
\exindex{TypeError}
\indexii{floating point}{number}
@ -71,11 +71,13 @@ enclosure: parenth_form | list_display | dict_display | string_conversion
\index{identifier}
An identifier occurring as an atom is a reference to a local, global
or built-in name binding. If a name can be assigned to anywhere in a
code block, and is not mentioned in a \verb\global\ statement in that
code block, it refers to a local name throughout that code block.
Otherwise, it refers to a global name if one exists, else to a
built-in name.
or built-in name binding. If a name is assigned to anywhere in a code
block (even in unreachable code), and is not mentioned in a
\verb@global@ statement in that code block, then it refers to a local
name throughout that code block. When it is not assigned to anywhere
in the block, or when it is assigned to but also explicitly listed in
a \verb@global@ statement, it refers to a global name if one exists,
else to a built-in name (and this binding may dynamically change).
\indexii{name}{binding}
\index{code block}
\stindex{global}
@ -84,7 +86,7 @@ built-in name.
When the name is bound to an object, evaluation of the atom yields
that object. When a name is not bound, an attempt to evaluate it
raises a \verb\NameError\ exception.
raises a \verb@NameError@ exception.
\exindex{NameError}
\subsection{Literals}
@ -197,10 +199,10 @@ A string conversion evaluates the contained condition list and
converts the resulting object into a string according to rules
specific to its type.
If the object is a string, a number, \verb\None\, or a tuple, list or
If the object is a string, a number, \verb@None@, or a tuple, list or
dictionary containing only objects whose type is one of these, the
resulting string is a valid Python expression which can be passed to
the built-in function \verb\eval()\ to yield an expression with the
the built-in function \verb@eval()@ to yield an expression with the
same value (or an approximation, if floating point numbers are
involved).
@ -234,7 +236,7 @@ attributeref: primary "." identifier
The primary must evaluate to an object of a type that supports
attribute references, e.g. a module or a list. This object is then
asked to produce the attribute whose name is the identifier. If this
attribute is not available, the exception \verb\AttributeError\ is
attribute is not available, the exception \verb@AttributeError@ is
raised. Otherwise, the type and value of the object produced is
determined by the object. Multiple evaluations of the same attribute
reference may yield different objects.
@ -266,7 +268,7 @@ the value in the mapping that corresponds to that key.
If it is a sequence, the condition must evaluate to a plain integer.
If this value is negative, the length of the sequence is added to it
(so that, e.g. \verb\x[-1]\ selects the last item of \verb\x\.)
(so that, e.g. \verb@x[-1]@ selects the last item of \verb@x@.)
The resulting value must be a nonnegative integer smaller than the
number of items in the sequence, and the subscription selects the item
whose index is that value (counting from zero).
@ -318,7 +320,7 @@ objects, and methods of class instances are callable). If it is a
class, the argument list must be empty; otherwise, the arguments are
evaluated.
A call always returns some value, possibly \verb\None\, unless it
A call always returns some value, possibly \verb@None@, unless it
raises an exception. How this value is computed depends on the type
of the callable object. If it is:
@ -328,7 +330,7 @@ of the callable object. If it is:
executed, passing it the argument list. The first thing the code
block will do is bind the formal parameters to the arguments; this is
described in section \ref{function}. When the code block executes a
\verb\return\ statement, this specifies the return value of the
\verb@return@ statement, this specifies the return value of the
function call.
\indexii{function}{call}
\indexiii{user-defined}{function}{call}
@ -371,22 +373,22 @@ All unary arithmetic (and bit-wise) operations have the same priority:
u_expr: primary | "-" u_expr | "+" u_expr | "~" u_expr
\end{verbatim}
The unary \verb\"-"\ (minus) operator yields the negation of its
The unary \verb@"-"@ (minus) operator yields the negation of its
numeric argument.
\index{negation}
\index{minus}
The unary \verb\"+"\ (plus) operator yields its numeric argument
The unary \verb@"+"@ (plus) operator yields its numeric argument
unchanged.
\index{plus}
The unary \verb\"~"\ (invert) operator yields the bit-wise inversion
The unary \verb@"~"@ (invert) operator yields the bit-wise inversion
of its plain or long integer argument. The bit-wise inversion of
\verb\x\ is defined as \verb\-(x+1)\.
\verb@x@ is defined as \verb@-(x+1)@.
\index{inversion}
In all three cases, if the argument does not have the proper type,
a \verb\TypeError\ exception is raised.
a \verb@TypeError@ exception is raised.
\exindex{TypeError}
\section{Binary arithmetic operations}
@ -404,7 +406,7 @@ m_expr: u_expr | m_expr "*" u_expr
a_expr: m_expr | aexpr "+" m_expr | aexpr "-" m_expr
\end{verbatim}
The \verb\"*"\ (multiplication) operator yields the product of its
The \verb@"*"@ (multiplication) operator yields the product of its
arguments. The arguments must either both be numbers, or one argument
must be a plain integer and the other must be a sequence. In the
former case, the numbers are converted to a common type and then
@ -412,40 +414,40 @@ multiplied together. In the latter case, sequence repetition is
performed; a negative repetition factor yields an empty sequence.
\index{multiplication}
The \verb\"/"\ (division) operator yields the quotient of its
The \verb@"/"@ (division) operator yields the quotient of its
arguments. The numeric arguments are first converted to a common
type. Plain or long integer division yields an integer of the same
type; the result is that of mathematical division with the `floor'
function applied to the result. Division by zero raises the
\verb\ZeroDivisionError\ exception.
\verb@ZeroDivisionError@ exception.
\exindex{ZeroDivisionError}
\index{division}
The \verb\"%"\ (modulo) operator yields the remainder from the
The \verb@"%"@ (modulo) operator yields the remainder from the
division of the first argument by the second. The numeric arguments
are first converted to a common type. A zero right argument raises
the \verb\ZeroDivisionError\ exception. The arguments may be floating
point numbers, e.g. \verb\3.14 % 0.7\ equals \verb\0.34\. The modulo
the \verb@ZeroDivisionError@ exception. The arguments may be floating
point numbers, e.g. \verb@3.14 % 0.7@ equals \verb@0.34@. The modulo
operator always yields a result with the same sign as its second
operand (or zero); the absolute value of the result is strictly
smaller than the second operand.
\index{modulo}
The integer division and modulo operators are connected by the
following identity: \verb\x == (x/y)*y + (x%y)\. Integer division and
modulo are also connected with the built-in function \verb\divmod()\:
\verb\divmod(x, y) == (x/y, x%y)\. These identities don't hold for
following identity: \verb@x == (x/y)*y + (x%y)@. Integer division and
modulo are also connected with the built-in function \verb@divmod()@:
\verb@divmod(x, y) == (x/y, x%y)@. These identities don't hold for
floating point numbers; there a similar identity holds where
\verb\x/y\ is replaced by \verb\floor(x/y)\).
\verb@x/y@ is replaced by \verb@floor(x/y)@).
The \verb\"+"\ (addition) operator yields the sum of its arguments.
The \verb@"+"@ (addition) operator yields the sum of its arguments.
The arguments must either both be numbers, or both sequences of the
same type. In the former case, the numbers are converted to a common
type and then added together. In the latter case, the sequences are
concatenated.
\index{addition}
The \verb\"-"\ (subtraction) operator yields the difference of its
The \verb@"-"@ (subtraction) operator yields the difference of its
arguments. The numeric arguments are first converted to a common
type.
\index{subtraction}
@ -470,7 +472,7 @@ shift by $n$ bits is defined as multiplication with $2^n$; for plain
integers there is no overflow check so this drops bits and flip the
sign if the result is not less than $2^{31}$ in absolute value.
Negative shift counts raise a \verb\ValueError\ exception.
Negative shift counts raise a \verb@ValueError@ exception.
\exindex{ValueError}
\section{Binary bit-wise operations}
@ -484,18 +486,18 @@ xor_expr: and_expr | xor_expr "^" and_expr
or_expr: xor_expr | or_expr "|" xor_expr
\end{verbatim}
The \verb\"&"\ operator yields the bitwise AND of its arguments, which
The \verb@"&"@ operator yields the bitwise AND of its arguments, which
must be plain or long integers. The arguments are converted to a
common type.
\indexii{bit-wise}{and}
The \verb\"^"\ operator yields the bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) of its
The \verb@"^"@ operator yields the bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) of its
arguments, which must be plain or long integers. The arguments are
converted to a common type.
\indexii{bit-wise}{xor}
\indexii{exclusive}{or}
The \verb\"|"\ operator yields the bitwise (inclusive) OR of its
The \verb@"|"@ operator yields the bitwise (inclusive) OR of its
arguments, which must be plain or long integers. The arguments are
converted to a common type.
\indexii{bit-wise}{or}
@ -507,7 +509,7 @@ converted to a common type.
Contrary to C, all comparison operations in Python have the same
priority, which is lower than that of any arithmetic, shifting or
bitwise operation. Also contrary to C, expressions like
\verb\a < b < c\ have the interpretation that is conventional in
\verb@a < b < c@ have the interpretation that is conventional in
mathematics:
\index{C}
@ -519,23 +521,23 @@ comp_operator: "<"|">"|"=="|">="|"<="|"<>"|"!="|"is" ["not"]|["not"] "in"
Comparisons yield integer values: 1 for true, 0 for false.
Comparisons can be chained arbitrarily, e.g. $x < y <= z$ is
equivalent to $x < y$ \verb\and\ $y <= z$, except that $y$ is
equivalent to $x < y$ \verb@and@ $y <= z$, except that $y$ is
evaluated only once (but in both cases $z$ is not evaluated at all
when $x < y$ is found to be false).
\indexii{chaining}{comparisons}
\catcode`\_=8
Formally, $e_0 op_1 e_1 op_2 e_2 ...e_{n-1} op_n e_n$ is equivalent to
$e_0 op_1 e_1$ \verb\and\ $e_1 op_2 e_2$ \verb\and\ ... \verb\and\
$e_0 op_1 e_1$ \verb@and@ $e_1 op_2 e_2$ \verb@and@ ... \verb@and@
$e_{n-1} op_n e_n$, except that each expression is evaluated at most once.
Note that $e_0 op_1 e_1 op_2 e_2$ does not imply any kind of comparison
between $e_0$ and $e_2$, e.g. $x < y > z$ is perfectly legal.
\catcode`\_=12
The forms \verb\<>\ and \verb\!=\ are equivalent; for consistency with
C, \verb\!=\ is preferred; where \verb\!=\ is mentioned below
\verb\<>\ is also implied.
The forms \verb@<>@ and \verb@!=@ are equivalent; for consistency with
C, \verb@!=@ is preferred; where \verb@!=@ is mentioned below
\verb@<>@ is also implied.
The operators {\tt "<", ">", "==", ">=", "<="}, and {\tt "!="} compare
the values of two objects. The objects needn't have the same type.
@ -544,8 +546,8 @@ objects of different types {\em always} compare unequal, and are
ordered consistently but arbitrarily.
(This unusual definition of comparison is done to simplify the
definition of operations like sorting and the \verb\in\ and \verb\not
in\ operators.)
definition of operations like sorting and the \verb@in@ and
\verb@not in@ operators.)
Comparison of objects of the same type depends on the type:
@ -556,7 +558,7 @@ Numbers are compared arithmetically.
\item
Strings are compared lexicographically using the numeric equivalents
(the result of the built-in function \verb\ord\) of their characters.
(the result of the built-in function \verb@ord@) of their characters.
\item
Tuples and lists are compared lexicographically using comparison of
@ -579,11 +581,11 @@ execution of a program.
\end{itemize}
The operators \verb\in\ and \verb\not in\ test for sequence
membership: if $y$ is a sequence, $x ~\verb\in\~ y$ is true if and
The operators \verb@in@ and \verb@not in@ test for sequence
membership: if $y$ is a sequence, $x ~\verb@in@~ y$ is true if and
only if there exists an index $i$ such that $x = y[i]$.
$x ~\verb\not in\~ y$ yields the inverse truth value. The exception
\verb\TypeError\ is raised when $y$ is not a sequence, or when $y$ is
$x ~\verb@not in@~ y$ yields the inverse truth value. The exception
\verb@TypeError@ is raised when $y$ is not a sequence, or when $y$ is
a string and $x$ is not a string of length one.%
\footnote{The latter restriction is sometimes a nuisance.}
\opindex{in}
@ -591,9 +593,9 @@ a string and $x$ is not a string of length one.%
\indexii{membership}{test}
\obindex{sequence}
The operators \verb\is\ and \verb\is not\ test for object identity:
$x ~\verb\is\~ y$ is true if and only if $x$ and $y$ are the same
object. $x ~\verb\is not\~ y$ yields the inverse truth value.
The operators \verb@is@ and \verb@is not@ test for object identity:
$x ~\verb@is@~ y$ is true if and only if $x$ and $y$ are the same
object. $x ~\verb@is not@~ y$ yields the inverse truth value.
\opindex{is}
\opindex{is not}
\indexii{identity}{test}
@ -613,38 +615,39 @@ lambda_form: "lambda" [parameter_list]: condition
In the context of Boolean operations, and also when conditions are
used by control flow statements, the following values are interpreted
as false: \verb\None\, numeric zero of all types, empty sequences
as false: \verb@None@, numeric zero of all types, empty sequences
(strings, tuples and lists), and empty mappings (dictionaries). All
other values are interpreted as true.
The operator \verb\not\ yields 1 if its argument is false, 0 otherwise.
The operator \verb@not@ yields 1 if its argument is false, 0 otherwise.
\opindex{not}
The condition $x ~\verb\and\~ y$ first evaluates $x$; if $x$ is false,
The condition $x ~\verb@and@~ y$ first evaluates $x$; if $x$ is false,
its value is returned; otherwise, $y$ is evaluated and the resulting
value is returned.
\opindex{and}
The condition $x ~\verb\or\~ y$ first evaluates $x$; if $x$ is true,
The condition $x ~\verb@or@~ y$ first evaluates $x$; if $x$ is true,
its value is returned; otherwise, $y$ is evaluated and the resulting
value is returned.
\opindex{or}
(Note that \verb\and\ and \verb\or\ do not restrict the value and type
(Note that \verb@and@ and \verb@or@ do not restrict the value and type
they return to 0 and 1, but rather return the last evaluated argument.
This is sometimes useful, e.g. if \verb\s\ is a string that should be
This is sometimes useful, e.g. if \verb@s@ is a string that should be
replaced by a default value if it is empty, the expression
\verb\s or 'foo'\ yields the desired value. Because \verb\not\ has to
\verb@s or 'foo'@ yields the desired value. Because \verb@not@ has to
invent a value anyway, it does not bother to return a value of the
same type as its argument, so e.g. \verb\not 'foo'\ yields \verb\0\,
not \verb\''\.)
same type as its argument, so e.g. \verb@not 'foo'@ yields \verb@0@,
not \verb@''@.)
Lambda forms (lambda expressions) have the same syntactic position as
conditions. They are a shorthand to create anonymous functions; the
expression \verb\lambda\ {\em arguments}\verb\:\ {\em condition}
expression {\em {\tt lambda} arguments{\tt :} condition}
yields a function object that behaves virtually identical to one
defined with \verb\def\ {\em name}\verb\(\{\em arguments}\verb\) :
return\ {\em condition}. See section \ref{function} for the syntax of
defined with
{\em {\tt def} name {\tt (}arguments{\tt ): return} condition}.
See section \ref{function} for the syntax of
parameter lists. Note that functions created with lambda forms cannot
contain statements.
\label{lambda}
@ -686,4 +689,4 @@ tuple, but rather yields the value of that expression (condition).
\indexii{trailing}{comma}
(To create an empty tuple, use an empty pair of parentheses:
\verb\()\.)
\verb@()@.)

20
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@ -43,22 +43,22 @@ name: lc_letter (lc_letter | "_")*
lc_letter: "a"..."z"
\end{verbatim}
The first line says that a \verb\name\ is an \verb\lc_letter\ followed by
a sequence of zero or more \verb\lc_letter\s and underscores. An
\verb\lc_letter\ in turn is any of the single characters `a' through `z'.
The first line says that a \verb@name@ is an \verb@lc_letter@ followed by
a sequence of zero or more \verb@lc_letter@s and underscores. An
\verb@lc_letter@ in turn is any of the single characters `a' through `z'.
(This rule is actually adhered to for the names defined in lexical and
grammar rules in this document.)
Each rule begins with a name (which is the name defined by the rule)
and a colon. A vertical bar (\verb\|\) is used to separate
and a colon. A vertical bar (\verb@|@) is used to separate
alternatives; it is the least binding operator in this notation. A
star (\verb\*\) means zero or more repetitions of the preceding item;
likewise, a plus (\verb\+\) means one or more repetitions, and a
phrase enclosed in square brackets (\verb\[ ]\) means zero or one
star (\verb@*@) means zero or more repetitions of the preceding item;
likewise, a plus (\verb@+@) means one or more repetitions, and a
phrase enclosed in square brackets (\verb@[ ]@) means zero or one
occurrences (in other words, the enclosed phrase is optional). The
\verb\*\ and \verb\+\ operators bind as tightly as possible;
\verb@*@ and \verb@+@ operators bind as tightly as possible;
parentheses are used for grouping. Literal strings are enclosed in
double quotes. White space is only meaningful to separate tokens.
quotes. White space is only meaningful to separate tokens.
Rules are normally contained on a single line; rules with many
alternatives may be formatted alternatively with each line after the
first beginning with a vertical bar.
@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ first beginning with a vertical bar.
In lexical definitions (as the example above), two more conventions
are used: Two literal characters separated by three dots mean a choice
of any single character in the given (inclusive) range of ASCII
characters. A phrase between angular brackets (\verb\<...>\) gives an
characters. A phrase between angular brackets (\verb@<...>@) gives an
informal description of the symbol defined; e.g. this could be used
to describe the notion of `control character' if needed.
\index{lexical definitions}

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@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ syntax (e.g. between statements in compound statements).
\subsection{Comments}
A comment starts with a hash character (\verb\#\) that is not part of
A comment starts with a hash character (\verb@#@) that is not part of
a string literal, and ends at the end of the physical line. A comment
always signifies the end of the logical line. Comments are ignored by
the syntax.
@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ the syntax.
\index{physical line}
\index{hash character}
\subsection{Line joining}
\subsection{Explicit line joining}
Two or more physical lines may be joined into logical lines using
backslash characters (\verb/\/), as follows: when a physical line ends
@ -37,15 +37,37 @@ joined with the following forming a single logical line, deleting the
backslash and the following end-of-line character. For example:
\index{physical line}
\index{line joining}
\index{line continuation}
\index{backslash character}
%
\begin{verbatim}
month_names = ['Januari', 'Februari', 'Maart', \
'April', 'Mei', 'Juni', \
'Juli', 'Augustus', 'September', \
'Oktober', 'November', 'December']
if 1900 < year < 2100 and 1 <= month <= 12 \
and 1 <= day <= 31 and 0 <= hour < 24 \
and 0 <= minute < 60 and 0 <= second < 60: # Looks like a valid date
return 1
\end{verbatim}
A line ending in a backslash cannot carry a comment; a backslash does
not continue a comment (but it does continue a string literal, see
below).
\subsection{Implicit line joining}
Expressions in parentheses, square brackets or curly braces can be
split over more than one physical line without using backslashes.
For example:
\begin{verbatim}
month_names = ['Januari', 'Februari', 'Maart', # These are the
'April', 'Mei', 'Juni', # Dutch names
'Juli', 'Augustus', 'September', # for the months
'Oktober', 'November', 'December'] # of the year
\end{verbatim}
Implicitly continued lines can carry comments. The indentation of the
continuation lines is not important. Blank continuation lines are
allowed.
\subsection{Blank lines}
A logical line that contains only spaces, tabs, and possibly a
@ -123,7 +145,7 @@ The following example shows various indentation errors:
(Actually, the first three errors are detected by the parser; only the
last error is found by the lexical analyzer --- the indentation of
\verb\return r\ does not match a level popped off the stack.)
\verb@return r@ does not match a level popped off the stack.)
\section{Other tokens}
@ -159,26 +181,15 @@ identifiers. They must be spelled exactly as written here:
\index{reserved word}
\begin{verbatim}
and del for in print
break elif from is raise
class else global not return
continue except if or try
def finally import pass while
access del from lambda return
and elif global not try
break else if or while
class except import pass
continue finally in print
def for is raise
\end{verbatim}
% # This Python program sorts and formats the above table
% import string
% l = []
% try:
% while 1:
% l = l + string.split(raw_input())
% except EOFError:
% pass
% l.sort()
% for i in range((len(l)+4)/5):
% for j in range(i, len(l), 5):
% print string.ljust(l[j], 10),
% print
% When adding keywords, pipe it through keywords.py for reformatting
\section{Literals} \label{literals}
@ -192,17 +203,24 @@ String literals are described by the following lexical definitions:
\index{string literal}
\begin{verbatim}
stringliteral: "'" stringitem* "'"
stringitem: stringchar | escapeseq
stringchar: <any ASCII character except newline or "\" or "'">
escapeseq: "'" <any ASCII character except newline>
stringliteral: shortstring | longstring
shortstring: "'" shortstringitem* "'" | '"' shortstringitem* '"'
longstring: "'''" longstringitem* "'''" | '"""' longstringitem* '"""'
shortstringitem: shortstringchar | escapeseq
shortstringchar: <any ASCII character except "\" or newline or the quote>
longstringchar: <any ASCII character except "\">
escapeseq: "\" <any ASCII character>
\end{verbatim}
\index{ASCII}
String literals cannot span physical line boundaries. Escape
sequences in strings are actually interpreted according to rules
similar to those used by Standard C. The recognized escape sequences
are:
In ``long strings'' (strings surrounded by sets of three quotes),
unescaped newlines and quotes are allowed (and are retained), except
that three unescaped quotes in a row terminate the string. (A
``quote'' is the character used to open the string, i.e. either
\verb/'/ or \verb/"/.)
Escape sequences in strings are interpreted according to rules similar
to those used by Standard C. The recognized escape sequences are:
\index{physical line}
\index{escape sequence}
\index{Standard C}
@ -211,8 +229,10 @@ are:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|l|l|}
\hline
\verb/\/{\em newline} & Ignored \\
\verb/\\/ & Backslash (\verb/\/) \\
\verb/\'/ & Single quote (\verb/'/) \\
\verb/\"/ & Double quote (\verb/"/) \\
\verb/\a/ & ASCII Bell (BEL) \\
\verb/\b/ & ASCII Backspace (BS) \\
%\verb/\E/ & ASCII Escape (ESC) \\
@ -309,8 +329,8 @@ Some examples of floating point literals:
\end{verbatim}
Note that numeric literals do not include a sign; a phrase like
\verb\-1\ is actually an expression composed of the operator
\verb\-\ and the literal \verb\1\.
\verb@-1@ is actually an expression composed of the operator
\verb@-@ and the literal \verb@1@.
\section{Operators}
@ -323,7 +343,7 @@ The following tokens are operators:
< == > <= <> != >=
\end{verbatim}
The comparison operators \verb\<>\ and \verb\!=\ are alternate
The comparison operators \verb@<>@ and \verb@!=@ are alternate
spellings of the same operator.
\section{Delimiters}

220
Doc/ref3.tex
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@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ Some objects contain references to ``external'' resources such as open
files or windows. It is understood that these resources are freed
when the object is garbage-collected, but since garbage collection is
not guaranteed to happen, such objects also provide an explicit way to
release the external resource, usually a \verb\close\ method.
release the external resource, usually a \verb@close@ method.
Programs are strongly recommended to always explicitly close such
objects.
@ -69,8 +69,8 @@ objects this is not allowed. E.g. after
a = 1; b = 1; c = []; d = []
\end{verbatim}
\verb\a\ and \verb\b\ may or may not refer to the same object with the
value one, depending on the implementation, but \verb\c\ and \verb\d\
\verb@a@ and \verb@b@ may or may not refer to the same object with the
value one, depending on the implementation, but \verb@c@ and \verb@d@
are guaranteed to refer to two different, unique, newly created empty
lists.
@ -90,9 +90,9 @@ Some of the type descriptions below contain a paragraph listing
`special attributes'. These are attributes that provide access to the
implementation and are not intended for general use. Their definition
may change in the future. There are also some `generic' special
attributes, not listed with the individual objects: \verb\__methods__\
attributes, not listed with the individual objects: \verb@__methods__@
is a list of the method names of a built-in object, if it has any;
\verb\__members__\ is a list of the data attribute names of a built-in
\verb@__members__@ is a list of the data attribute names of a built-in
object, if it has any.
\index{attribute}
\indexii{special}{attribute}
@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ object, if it has any.
\item[None]
This type has a single value. There is a single object with this value.
This object is accessed through the built-in name \verb\None\.
This object is accessed through the built-in name \verb@None@.
It is returned from functions that don't explicitly return an object.
\ttindex{None}
\obindex{None@{\tt None}}
@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ These represent numbers in the range $-2^{31}$ through $2^{31}-1$.
(The range may be larger on machines with a larger natural word
size, but not smaller.)
When the result of an operation falls outside this range, the
exception \verb\OverflowError\ is raised.
exception \verb@OverflowError@ is raised.
For the purpose of shift and mask operations, integers are assumed to
have a binary, 2's complement notation using 32 or more bits, and
hiding no bits from the user (i.e., all $2^{32}$ different bit
@ -172,17 +172,17 @@ C implementation for the accepted range and handling of overflow.
\item[Sequences]
These represent finite ordered sets indexed by natural numbers.
The built-in function \verb\len()\ returns the number of elements
The built-in function \verb@len()@ returns the number of elements
of a sequence. When this number is $n$, the index set contains
the numbers $0, 1, \ldots, n-1$. Element \verb\i\ of sequence
\verb\a\ is selected by \verb\a[i]\.
the numbers $0, 1, \ldots, n-1$. Element \verb@i@ of sequence
\verb@a@ is selected by \verb@a[i]@.
\obindex{seqence}
\bifuncindex{len}
\index{index operation}
\index{item selection}
\index{subscription}
Sequences also support slicing: \verb\a[i:j]\ selects all elements
Sequences also support slicing: \verb@a[i:j]@ selects all elements
with index $k$ such that $i <= k < j$. When used as an expression,
a slice is a sequence of the same type --- this implies that the
index set is renumbered so that it starts at 0 again.
@ -209,7 +209,7 @@ The following types are immutable sequences:
The elements of a string are characters. There is no separate
character type; a character is represented by a string of one element.
Characters represent (at least) 8-bit bytes. The built-in
functions \verb\chr()\ and \verb\ord()\ convert between characters
functions \verb@chr()@ and \verb@ord()@ convert between characters
and nonnegative integers representing the byte values.
Bytes with the values 0-127 represent the corresponding ASCII values.
The string data type is also used to represent arrays of bytes, e.g.
@ -223,7 +223,7 @@ to hold data read from a file.
(On systems whose native character set is not ASCII, strings may use
EBCDIC in their internal representation, provided the functions
\verb\chr()\ and \verb\ord()\ implement a mapping between ASCII and
\verb@chr()@ and \verb@ord()@ implement a mapping between ASCII and
EBCDIC, and string comparison preserves the ASCII order.
Or perhaps someone can propose a better rule?)
\index{ASCII}
@ -250,7 +250,7 @@ parentheses.
\item[Mutable sequences]
Mutable sequences can be changed after they are created. The
subscription and slicing notations can be used as the target of
assignment and \verb\del\ (delete) statements.
assignment and \verb@del@ (delete) statements.
\obindex{mutable sequece}
\obindex{mutable}
\indexii{assignment}{statement}
@ -276,10 +276,10 @@ or 1.)
\item[Mapping types]
These represent finite sets of objects indexed by arbitrary index sets.
The subscript notation \verb\a[k]\ selects the element indexed
by \verb\k\ from the mapping \verb\a\; this can be used in
expressions and as the target of assignments or \verb\del\ statements.
The built-in function \verb\len()\ returns the number of elements
The subscript notation \verb@a[k]@ selects the element indexed
by \verb@k@ from the mapping \verb@a@; this can be used in
expressions and as the target of assignments or \verb@del@ statements.
The built-in function \verb@len()@ returns the number of elements
in a mapping.
\bifuncindex{len}
\index{subscription}
@ -299,7 +299,7 @@ Numeric types used for keys obey the normal rules for numeric
comparison: if two numbers compare equal (e.g. 1 and 1.0) then they
can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.
Dictionaries are mutable; they are created by the \verb\{...}\
Dictionaries are mutable; they are created by the \verb@{...}@
notation (see section \ref{dict}).
\obindex{dictionary}
\obindex{mutable}
@ -308,7 +308,7 @@ notation (see section \ref{dict}).
\item[Callable types]
These are the types to which the function call (invocation) operation,
written as \verb\function(argument, argument, ...)\, can be applied:
written as \verb@function(argument, argument, ...)@, can be applied:
\indexii{function}{call}
\index{invocation}
\indexii{function}{argument}
@ -325,8 +325,8 @@ parameter list.
\obindex{function}
\obindex{user-defined function}
Special read-only attributes: \verb\func_code\ is the code object
representing the compiled function body, and \verb\func_globals\ is (a
Special read-only attributes: \verb@func_code@ is the code object
representing the compiled function body, and \verb@func_globals@ is (a
reference to) the dictionary that holds the function's global
variables --- it implements the global name space of the module in
which the function was defined.
@ -346,14 +346,14 @@ shifted one to the right.
\indexii{user-defined}{method}
\index{object closure}
Special read-only attributes: \verb\im_self\ is the class instance
object, \verb\im_func\ is the function object.
Special read-only attributes: \verb@im_self@ is the class instance
object, \verb@im_func@ is the function object.
\ttindex{im_func}
\ttindex{im_self}
\item[Built-in functions]
A built-in function object is a wrapper around a C function. Examples
of built-in functions are \verb\len\ and \verb\math.sin\. There
of built-in functions are \verb@len@ and \verb@math.sin@. There
are no special attributes. The number and type of the arguments are
determined by the C function.
\obindex{built-in function}
@ -363,18 +363,20 @@ determined by the C function.
\item[Built-in methods]
This is really a different disguise of a built-in function, this time
containing an object passed to the C function as an implicit extra
argument. An example of a built-in method is \verb\list.append\ if
\verb\list\ is a list object.
argument. An example of a built-in method is \verb@list.append@ if
\verb@list@ is a list object.
\obindex{built-in method}
\obindex{method}
\indexii{built-in}{method}
\item[Classes]
Class objects are described below. When a class object is called as a
parameterless function, a new class instance (also described below) is
created and returned. The class's initialization function is not
called --- this is the responsibility of the caller. It is illegal to
call a class object with one or more arguments.
function, a new class instance (also described below) is created and
returned. This implies a call to the class's \verb@__init__@ method
if it has one. Any arguments are passed on to the \verb@__init__@
method -- if there is \verb@__init__@ method, the class must be called
without arguments.
\ttindex{__init__}
\obindex{class}
\obindex{class instance}
\obindex{instance}
@ -383,10 +385,10 @@ call a class object with one or more arguments.
\end{description}
\item[Modules]
Modules are imported by the \verb\import\ statement (see section
Modules are imported by the \verb@import@ statement (see section
\ref{import}). A module object is a container for a module's name
space, which is a dictionary (the same dictionary as referenced by the
\verb\func_globals\ attribute of functions defined in the module).
\verb@func_globals@ attribute of functions defined in the module).
Module attribute references are translated to lookups in this
dictionary. A module object does not contain the code object used to
initialize the module (since it isn't needed once the initialization
@ -396,8 +398,8 @@ is done).
Attribute assignment update the module's name space dictionary.
Special read-only attributes: \verb\__dict__\ yields the module's name
space as a dictionary object; \verb\__name__\ yields the module's name
Special read-only attributes: \verb@__dict__@ yields the module's name
space as a dictionary object; \verb@__name__@ yields the module's name
as a string object.
\ttindex{__dict__}
\ttindex{__name__}
@ -423,12 +425,12 @@ Class attribute assignments update the class's dictionary, never the
dictionary of a base class.
\indexiii{class}{attribute}{assignment}
A class can be called as a parameterless function to yield a class
instance (see above).
A class can be called as a function to yield a class instance (see
above).
\indexii{class object}{call}
Special read-only attributes: \verb\__dict__\ yields the dictionary
containing the class's name space; \verb\__bases__\ yields a tuple
Special read-only attributes: \verb@__dict__@ yields the dictionary
containing the class's name space; \verb@__bases__@ yields a tuple
(possibly empty or a singleton) containing the base classes, in the
order of their occurrence in the base class list.
\ttindex{__dict__}
@ -436,7 +438,7 @@ order of their occurrence in the base class list.
\item[Class instances]
A class instance is created by calling a class object as a
parameterless function. A class instance has a dictionary in which
function. A class instance has a dictionary in which
attribute references are searched. When an attribute is not found
there, and the instance's class has an attribute by that name, and
that class attribute is a user-defined function (and in no other
@ -457,17 +459,17 @@ section \ref{specialnames}.
\obindex{sequence}
\obindex{mapping}
Special read-only attributes: \verb\__dict__\ yields the attribute
dictionary; \verb\__class__\ yields the instance's class.
Special read-only attributes: \verb@__dict__@ yields the attribute
dictionary; \verb@__class__@ yields the instance's class.
\ttindex{__dict__}
\ttindex{__class__}
\item[Files]
A file object represents an open file. (It is a wrapper around a C
{\tt stdio} file pointer.) File objects are created by the
\verb\open()\ built-in function, and also by \verb\posix.popen()\ and
the \verb\makefile\ method of socket objects. \verb\sys.stdin\,
\verb\sys.stdout\ and \verb\sys.stderr\ are file objects corresponding
\verb@open()@ built-in function, and also by \verb@posix.popen()@ and
the \verb@makefile@ method of socket objects. \verb@sys.stdin@,
\verb@sys.stdout@ and \verb@sys.stderr@ are file objects corresponding
the the interpreter's standard input, output and error streams.
See the Python Library Reference for methods of file objects and other
details.
@ -500,12 +502,12 @@ was defined) which a code object contains no context. There is no way
to execute a bare code object.
\obindex{code}
Special read-only attributes: \verb\co_code\ is a string representing
the sequence of instructions; \verb\co_consts\ is a list of literals
used by the code; \verb\co_names\ is a list of names (strings) used by
the code; \verb\co_filename\ is the filename from which the code was
Special read-only attributes: \verb@co_code@ is a string representing
the sequence of instructions; \verb@co_consts@ is a list of literals
used by the code; \verb@co_names@ is a list of names (strings) used by
the code; \verb@co_filename@ is the filename from which the code was
compiled. (To find out the line numbers, you would have to decode the
instructions; the standard library module \verb\dis\ contains an
instructions; the standard library module \verb@dis@ contains an
example of how to do this.)
\ttindex{co_code}
\ttindex{co_consts}
@ -517,12 +519,12 @@ Frame objects represent execution frames. They may occur in traceback
objects (see below).
\obindex{frame}
Special read-only attributes: \verb\f_back\ is to the previous
stack frame (towards the caller), or \verb\None\ if this is the bottom
stack frame; \verb\f_code\ is the code object being executed in this
frame; \verb\f_globals\ is the dictionary used to look up global
variables; \verb\f_locals\ is used for local variables;
\verb\f_lineno\ gives the line number and \verb\f_lasti\ gives the
Special read-only attributes: \verb@f_back@ is to the previous
stack frame (towards the caller), or \verb@None@ if this is the bottom
stack frame; \verb@f_code@ is the code object being executed in this
frame; \verb@f_globals@ is the dictionary used to look up global
variables; \verb@f_locals@ is used for local variables;
\verb@f_lineno@ gives the line number and \verb@f_lasti@ gives the
precise instruction (this is an index into the instruction string of
the code object).
\ttindex{f_back}
@ -539,11 +541,11 @@ for an exception handler unwinds the execution stack, at each unwound
level a traceback object is inserted in front of the current
traceback. When an exception handler is entered
(see also section \ref{try}), the stack trace is
made available to the program as \verb\sys.exc_traceback\. When the
made available to the program as \verb@sys.exc_traceback@. When the
program contains no suitable handler, the stack trace is written
(nicely formatted) to the standard error stream; if the interpreter is
interactive, it is also made available to the user as
\verb\sys.last_traceback\.
\verb@sys.last_traceback@.
\obindex{traceback}
\indexii{stack}{trace}
\indexii{exception}{handler}
@ -553,15 +555,15 @@ interactive, it is also made available to the user as
\ttindex{sys.exc_traceback}
\ttindex{sys.last_traceback}
Special read-only attributes: \verb\tb_next\ is the next level in the
Special read-only attributes: \verb@tb_next@ is the next level in the
stack trace (towards the frame where the exception occurred), or
\verb\None\ if there is no next level; \verb\tb_frame\ points to the
execution frame of the current level; \verb\tb_lineno\ gives the line
number where the exception occurred; \verb\tb_lasti\ indicates the
\verb@None@ if there is no next level; \verb@tb_frame@ points to the
execution frame of the current level; \verb@tb_lineno@ gives the line
number where the exception occurred; \verb@tb_lasti@ indicates the
precise instruction. The line number and last instruction in the
traceback may differ from the line number of its frame object if the
exception occurred in a \verb\try\ statement with no matching
\verb\except\ clause or with a \verb\finally\ clause.
exception occurred in a \verb@try@ statement with no matching
\verb@except@ clause or with a \verb@finally@ clause.
\ttindex{tb_next}
\ttindex{tb_frame}
\ttindex{tb_lineno}
@ -578,17 +580,19 @@ exception occurred in a \verb\try\ statement with no matching
A class can implement certain operations that are invoked by special
syntax (such as subscription or arithmetic operations) by defining
methods with special names. For instance, if a class defines a
method named \verb\__getitem__\, and \verb\x\ is an instance of this
class, then \verb\x[i]\ is equivalent to \verb\x.__getitem__(i)\.
(The reverse is not true --- if \verb\x\ is a list object,
\verb\x.__getitem__(i)\ is not equivalent to \verb\x[i]\.)
method named \verb@__getitem__@, and \verb@x@ is an instance of this
class, then \verb@x[i]@ is equivalent to \verb@x.__getitem__(i)@.
(The reverse is not true --- if \verb@x@ is a list object,
\verb@x.__getitem__(i)@ is not equivalent to \verb@x[i]@.)
Except for \verb\__repr__\, \verb\__str__\ and \verb\__cmp__\,
Except for \verb@__repr__@, \verb@__str__@ and \verb@__cmp__@,
attempts to execute an
operation raise an exception when no appropriate method is defined.
For \verb\__repr__\ and \verb\__cmp__\, the traditional
interpretations are used in this case.
For \verb\__str__\, the \verb\__repr__\ method is used.
For \verb@__repr__@, the default is to return a string describing the
object's class and address.
For \verb@__cmp__@, the default is to compare instances based on their
address.
For \verb@__str__@, the default is to use \verb@__repr__@.
\subsection{Special methods for any type}
@ -614,17 +618,17 @@ reference is deleted. Also note that it is not guaranteed that
the interpreter exits.
\item[\tt __repr__(self)]
Called by the \verb\repr()\ built-in function and by conversions
Called by the \verb@repr()@ built-in function and by conversions
(reverse quotes) to compute the string representation of an object.
\item[\tt __str__(self)]
Called by the \verb\str()\ built-in function and by the \verb\print\
Called by the \verb@str()@ built-in function and by the \verb@print@
statement compute the string representation of an object.
\item[\tt __cmp__(self, other)]
Called by all comparison operations. Should return -1 if
\verb\self < other\, 0 if \verb\self == other\, +1 if
\verb\self > other\. If no \code{__cmp__} operation is defined, class
\verb@self < other@, 0 if \verb@self == other@, +1 if
\verb@self > other@. If no \code{__cmp__} operation is defined, class
instances are compared by object identity (``address'').
(Implementation note: due to limitations in the interpreter,
exceptions raised by comparisons are ignored, and the objects will be
@ -654,23 +658,23 @@ key's hash value is a constant.
\begin{description}
\item[\tt __len__(self)]
Called to implement the built-in function \verb\len()\. Should return
the length of the object, an integer \verb\>=\ 0. Also, an object
whose \verb\__len__()\ method returns 0 is considered to be false in a
Called to implement the built-in function \verb@len()@. Should return
the length of the object, an integer \verb@>=@ 0. Also, an object
whose \verb@__len__()@ method returns 0 is considered to be false in a
Boolean context.
\item[\tt __getitem__(self, key)]
Called to implement evaluation of \verb\self[key]\. Note that the
Called to implement evaluation of \verb@self[key]@. Note that the
special interpretation of negative keys (if the class wishes to
emulate a sequence type) is up to the \verb\__getitem__\ method.
emulate a sequence type) is up to the \verb@__getitem__@ method.
\item[\tt __setitem__(self, key, value)]
Called to implement assignment to \verb\self[key]\. Same note as for
\verb\__getitem__\.
Called to implement assignment to \verb@self[key]@. Same note as for
\verb@__getitem__@.
\item[\tt __delitem__(self, key)]
Called to implement deletion of \verb\self[key]\. Same note as for
\verb\__getitem__\.
Called to implement deletion of \verb@self[key]@. Same note as for
\verb@__getitem__@.
\end{description}
@ -680,19 +684,19 @@ Called to implement deletion of \verb\self[key]\. Same note as for
\begin{description}
\item[\tt __getslice__(self, i, j)]
Called to implement evaluation of \verb\self[i:j]\. Note that missing
\verb\i\ or \verb\j\ are replaced by 0 or \verb\len(self)\,
respectively, and \verb\len(self)\ has been added (once) to originally
negative \verb\i\ or \verb\j\ by the time this function is called
(unlike for \verb\__getitem__\).
Called to implement evaluation of \verb@self[i:j]@. Note that missing
\verb@i@ or \verb@j@ are replaced by 0 or \verb@len(self)@,
respectively, and \verb@len(self)@ has been added (once) to originally
negative \verb@i@ or \verb@j@ by the time this function is called
(unlike for \verb@__getitem__@).
\item[\tt __setslice__(self, i, j, sequence)]
Called to implement assignment to \verb\self[i:j]\. Same notes as for
\verb\__getslice__\.
Called to implement assignment to \verb@self[i:j]@. Same notes as for
\verb@__getslice__@.
\item[\tt __delslice__(self, i, j)]
Called to implement deletion of \verb\self[i:j]\. Same notes as for
\verb\__getslice__\.
Called to implement deletion of \verb@self[i:j]@. Same notes as for
\verb@__getslice__@.
\end{description}
@ -713,20 +717,20 @@ Called to implement deletion of \verb\self[i:j]\. Same notes as for
\item[\tt __and__(self, other)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __xor__(self, other)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __or__(self, other)]\itembreak
Called to implement the binary arithmetic operations (\verb\+\,
\verb\-\, \verb\*\, \verb\/\, \verb\%\, \verb\divmod()\, \verb\pow()\,
\verb\<<\, \verb\>>\, \verb\&\, \verb\^\, \verb\|\).
Called to implement the binary arithmetic operations (\verb@+@,
\verb@-@, \verb@*@, \verb@/@, \verb@%@, \verb@divmod()@, \verb@pow()@,
\verb@<<@, \verb@>>@, \verb@&@, \verb@^@, \verb@|@).
\item[\tt __neg__(self)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __pos__(self)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __abs__(self)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __invert__(self)]\itembreak
Called to implement the unary arithmetic operations (\verb\-\, \verb\+\,
\verb\abs()\ and \verb\~\).
Called to implement the unary arithmetic operations (\verb@-@, \verb@+@,
\verb@abs()@ and \verb@~@).
\item[\tt __nonzero__(self)]
Called to implement boolean testing; should return 0 or 1. An
alternative name for this method is \verb\__len__\.
alternative name for this method is \verb@__len__@.
\item[\tt __coerce__(self, other)]
Called to implement ``mixed-mode'' numeric arithmetic. Should either
@ -737,11 +741,11 @@ interpreter will also ask the other object to attempt a coercion (but
sometimes, if the implementation of the other type cannot be changed,
it is useful to do the conversion to the other type here).
Note that this method is not called to coerce the arguments to \verb\+\
and \verb\*\, because these are also used to implement sequence
Note that this method is not called to coerce the arguments to \verb@+@
and \verb@*@, because these are also used to implement sequence
concatenation and repetition, respectively. Also note that, for the
same reason, in \verb\n*x\, where \verb\n\ is a built-in number and
\verb\x\ is an instance, a call to \verb\x.__mul__(n)\ is made.%
same reason, in \verb@n*x@, where \verb@n@ is a built-in number and
\verb@x@ is an instance, a call to \verb@x.__mul__(n)@ is made.%
\footnote{The interpreter should really distinguish between
user-defined classes implementing sequences, mappings or numbers, but
currently it doesn't --- hence this strange exception.}
@ -749,12 +753,12 @@ currently it doesn't --- hence this strange exception.}
\item[\tt __int__(self)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __long__(self)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __float__(self)]\itembreak
Called to implement the built-in functions \verb\int()\, \verb\long()\
and \verb\float()\. Should return a value of the appropriate type.
Called to implement the built-in functions \verb@int()@, \verb@long()@
and \verb@float()@. Should return a value of the appropriate type.
\item[\tt __oct__(self)]\itemjoin
\item[\tt __hex__(self)]\itembreak
Called to implement the built-in functions \verb\oct()\ and
\verb\hex()\. Should return a string value.
Called to implement the built-in functions \verb@oct()@ and
\verb@hex()@. Should return a string value.
\end{description}

55
Doc/ref4.tex
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@ -20,9 +20,9 @@ The following are code blocks: A module is a code block. A function
body is a code block. A class definition is a code block. Each
command typed interactively is a separate code block; a script file is
a code block. The string argument passed to the built-in function
\verb\eval\ and to the \verb\exec\ statement are code blocks.
\verb@eval@ and to the \verb@exec@ statement are code blocks.
And finally, the
expression read and evaluated by the built-in function \verb\input\ is
expression read and evaluated by the built-in function \verb@input@ is
a code block.
A code block is executed in an execution frame. An {\em execution
@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ Name spaces are functionally equivalent to dictionaries.
The {\em local name space} of an execution frame determines the default
place where names are defined and searched. The {\em global name
space} determines the place where names listed in \verb\global\
space} determines the place where names listed in \verb@global@
statements are defined and searched, and where names that are not
explicitly bound in the current code block are searched.
\indexii{local}{name space}
@ -55,25 +55,35 @@ explicitly bound in the current code block are searched.
Whether a name is local or global in a code block is determined by
static inspection of the source text for the code block: in the
absence of \verb\global\ statements, a name that is bound anywhere in
absence of \verb@global@ statements, a name that is bound anywhere in
the code block is local in the entire code block; all other names are
considered global. The \verb\global\ statement forces global
considered global. The \verb@global@ statement forces global
interpretation of selected names throughout the code block. The
following constructs bind names: formal parameters, \verb\import\
following constructs bind names: formal parameters, \verb@import@
statements, class and function definitions (these bind the class or
function name), and targets that are identifiers if occurring in an
assignment, \verb\for\ loop header, or \verb\except\ clause header.
(A target occurring in a \verb\del\ statement does not bind a name.)
assignment, \verb@for@ loop header, or \verb@except@ clause header.
A target occurring in a \verb@del@ statement is also considered bound
for this purpose (though the actual semantics are to ``unbind'' the
name).
When a global name is not found in the global name space, it is
searched in the list of ``built-in'' names (which is actually the
global name space of the module \verb\__builtin__\). When a name is not
found at all, the \verb\NameError\ exception is raised.
global name space of the module \verb@__builtin__@). When a name is not
found at all, the \verb@NameError@ exception is raised.%
\footnote{If the code block contains \verb@exec@ statement or the
construct \verb@from ... import *@, the semantics of names not
explicitly mentioned in a \verb@global@ statement change subtly: name
lookup first searches the local name space, then the global one, then
the built-in one.}
The following table lists the meaning of the local and global name
space for various types of code blocks. The name space for a
particular module is automatically created when the module is first
referenced.
referenced. Note that in almost all cases, the global name space is
the name space of the containing module -- scopes in Python do not
nest!
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|l|}
@ -81,15 +91,18 @@ referenced.
Code block type & Global name space & Local name space & Notes \\
\hline
Module & n.s. for this module & same as global & \\
Script & n.s. for \verb\__main__\ & same as global & \\
Interactive command & n.s. for \verb\__main__\ & same as global & \\
Script & n.s. for \verb@__main__@ & same as global & \\
Interactive command & n.s. for \verb@__main__@ & same as global & \\
Class definition & global n.s. of containing block & new n.s. & \\
Function body & global n.s. of containing block & new n.s. & \\
String passed to \verb\exec\ or \verb\eval\
String passed to \verb@exec@ statement
& global n.s. of cobtaining block
& local n.s. of containing block & (1) \\
String passed to \verb@eval()@
& global n.s. of caller & local n.s. of caller & (1) \\
File read by \verb\execfile\
File read by \verb@execfile()@
& global n.s. of caller & local n.s. of caller & (1) \\
Expression read by \verb\input\
Expression read by \verb@input@
& global n.s. of caller & local n.s. of caller & \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
@ -101,7 +114,7 @@ Notes:
\item[n.s.] means {\em name space}
\item[(1)] The global and local name space for these functions can be
\item[(1)] The global and local name space for these can be
overridden with optional extra arguments.
\end{description}
@ -123,8 +136,8 @@ where the error occurred.
The Python interpreter raises an exception when it detects an run-time
error (such as division by zero). A Python program can also
explicitly raise an exception with the \verb\raise\ statement.
Exception handlers are specified with the \verb\try...except\
explicitly raise an exception with the \verb@raise@ statement.
Exception handlers are specified with the \verb@try...except@
statement.
Python uses the ``termination'' model of error handling: an exception
@ -139,10 +152,10 @@ execution of the program, or returns to its interactive main loop.
Exceptions are identified by string objects. Two different string
objects with the same value identify different exceptions.
When an exception is raised, an object (maybe \verb\None\) is passed
When an exception is raised, an object (maybe \verb@None@) is passed
as the exception's ``parameter''; this object does not affect the
selection of an exception handler, but is passed to the selected
exception handler as additional information.
See also the description of the \verb\try\ and \verb\raise\
See also the description of the \verb@try@ and \verb@raise@
statements.

137
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@ -12,14 +12,14 @@ may be used wherever an expression is required by enclosing it in
parentheses. The only places where expressions are used in the syntax
instead of conditions is in expression statements and on the
right-hand side of assignment statements; this catches some nasty bugs
like accidentally writing \verb\x == 1\ instead of \verb\x = 1\.
like accidentally writing \verb@x == 1@ instead of \verb@x = 1@.
\indexii{assignment}{statement}
The comma plays several roles in Python's syntax. It is usually an
operator with a lower precedence than all others, but occasionally
serves other purposes as well; e.g. it separates function arguments,
is used in list and dictionary constructors, and has special semantics
in \verb\print\ statements.
in \verb@print@ statements.
\index{comma}
When (one alternative of) a syntax rule has the form
@ -28,8 +28,8 @@ When (one alternative of) a syntax rule has the form
name: othername
\end{verbatim}
and no semantics are given, the semantics of this form of \verb\name\
are the same as for \verb\othername\.
and no semantics are given, the semantics of this form of \verb@name@
are the same as for \verb@othername@.
\index{syntax}
\section{Arithmetic conversions}
@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ are the same as for \verb\othername\.
When a description of an arithmetic operator below uses the phrase
``the numeric arguments are converted to a common type'',
this both means that if either argument is not a number, a
\verb\TypeError\ exception is raised, and that otherwise
\verb@TypeError@ exception is raised, and that otherwise
the following conversions are applied:
\exindex{TypeError}
\indexii{floating point}{number}
@ -71,11 +71,13 @@ enclosure: parenth_form | list_display | dict_display | string_conversion
\index{identifier}
An identifier occurring as an atom is a reference to a local, global
or built-in name binding. If a name can be assigned to anywhere in a
code block, and is not mentioned in a \verb\global\ statement in that
code block, it refers to a local name throughout that code block.
Otherwise, it refers to a global name if one exists, else to a
built-in name.
or built-in name binding. If a name is assigned to anywhere in a code
block (even in unreachable code), and is not mentioned in a
\verb@global@ statement in that code block, then it refers to a local
name throughout that code block. When it is not assigned to anywhere
in the block, or when it is assigned to but also explicitly listed in
a \verb@global@ statement, it refers to a global name if one exists,
else to a built-in name (and this binding may dynamically change).
\indexii{name}{binding}
\index{code block}
\stindex{global}
@ -84,7 +86,7 @@ built-in name.
When the name is bound to an object, evaluation of the atom yields
that object. When a name is not bound, an attempt to evaluate it
raises a \verb\NameError\ exception.
raises a \verb@NameError@ exception.
\exindex{NameError}
\subsection{Literals}
@ -197,10 +199,10 @@ A string conversion evaluates the contained condition list and
converts the resulting object into a string according to rules
specific to its type.
If the object is a string, a number, \verb\None\, or a tuple, list or
If the object is a string, a number, \verb@None@, or a tuple, list or
dictionary containing only objects whose type is one of these, the
resulting string is a valid Python expression which can be passed to
the built-in function \verb\eval()\ to yield an expression with the
the built-in function \verb@eval()@ to yield an expression with the
same value (or an approximation, if floating point numbers are
involved).
@ -234,7 +236,7 @@ attributeref: primary "." identifier
The primary must evaluate to an object of a type that supports
attribute references, e.g. a module or a list. This object is then
asked to produce the attribute whose name is the identifier. If this
attribute is not available, the exception \verb\AttributeError\ is
attribute is not available, the exception \verb@AttributeError@ is
raised. Otherwise, the type and value of the object produced is
determined by the object. Multiple evaluations of the same attribute
reference may yield different objects.
@ -266,7 +268,7 @@ the value in the mapping that corresponds to that key.
If it is a sequence, the condition must evaluate to a plain integer.
If this value is negative, the length of the sequence is added to it
(so that, e.g. \verb\x[-1]\ selects the last item of \verb\x\.)
(so that, e.g. \verb@x[-1]@ selects the last item of \verb@x@.)
The resulting value must be a nonnegative integer smaller than the
number of items in the sequence, and the subscription selects the item
whose index is that value (counting from zero).
@ -318,7 +320,7 @@ objects, and methods of class instances are callable). If it is a
class, the argument list must be empty; otherwise, the arguments are
evaluated.
A call always returns some value, possibly \verb\None\, unless it
A call always returns some value, possibly \verb@None@, unless it
raises an exception. How this value is computed depends on the type
of the callable object. If it is:
@ -328,7 +330,7 @@ of the callable object. If it is:
executed, passing it the argument list. The first thing the code
block will do is bind the formal parameters to the arguments; this is
described in section \ref{function}. When the code block executes a
\verb\return\ statement, this specifies the return value of the
\verb@return@ statement, this specifies the return value of the
function call.
\indexii{function}{call}
\indexiii{user-defined}{function}{call}
@ -371,22 +373,22 @@ All unary arithmetic (and bit-wise) operations have the same priority:
u_expr: primary | "-" u_expr | "+" u_expr | "~" u_expr
\end{verbatim}
The unary \verb\"-"\ (minus) operator yields the negation of its
The unary \verb@"-"@ (minus) operator yields the negation of its
numeric argument.
\index{negation}
\index{minus}
The unary \verb\"+"\ (plus) operator yields its numeric argument
The unary \verb@"+"@ (plus) operator yields its numeric argument
unchanged.
\index{plus}
The unary \verb\"~"\ (invert) operator yields the bit-wise inversion
The unary \verb@"~"@ (invert) operator yields the bit-wise inversion
of its plain or long integer argument. The bit-wise inversion of
\verb\x\ is defined as \verb\-(x+1)\.
\verb@x@ is defined as \verb@-(x+1)@.
\index{inversion}
In all three cases, if the argument does not have the proper type,
a \verb\TypeError\ exception is raised.
a \verb@TypeError@ exception is raised.
\exindex{TypeError}
\section{Binary arithmetic operations}
@ -404,7 +406,7 @@ m_expr: u_expr | m_expr "*" u_expr
a_expr: m_expr | aexpr "+" m_expr | aexpr "-" m_expr
\end{verbatim}
The \verb\"*"\ (multiplication) operator yields the product of its
The \verb@"*"@ (multiplication) operator yields the product of its
arguments. The arguments must either both be numbers, or one argument
must be a plain integer and the other must be a sequence. In the
former case, the numbers are converted to a common type and then
@ -412,40 +414,40 @@ multiplied together. In the latter case, sequence repetition is
performed; a negative repetition factor yields an empty sequence.
\index{multiplication}
The \verb\"/"\ (division) operator yields the quotient of its
The \verb@"/"@ (division) operator yields the quotient of its
arguments. The numeric arguments are first converted to a common
type. Plain or long integer division yields an integer of the same
type; the result is that of mathematical division with the `floor'
function applied to the result. Division by zero raises the
\verb\ZeroDivisionError\ exception.
\verb@ZeroDivisionError@ exception.
\exindex{ZeroDivisionError}
\index{division}
The \verb\"%"\ (modulo) operator yields the remainder from the
The \verb@"%"@ (modulo) operator yields the remainder from the
division of the first argument by the second. The numeric arguments
are first converted to a common type. A zero right argument raises
the \verb\ZeroDivisionError\ exception. The arguments may be floating
point numbers, e.g. \verb\3.14 % 0.7\ equals \verb\0.34\. The modulo
the \verb@ZeroDivisionError@ exception. The arguments may be floating
point numbers, e.g. \verb@3.14 % 0.7@ equals \verb@0.34@. The modulo
operator always yields a result with the same sign as its second
operand (or zero); the absolute value of the result is strictly
smaller than the second operand.
\index{modulo}
The integer division and modulo operators are connected by the
following identity: \verb\x == (x/y)*y + (x%y)\. Integer division and
modulo are also connected with the built-in function \verb\divmod()\:
\verb\divmod(x, y) == (x/y, x%y)\. These identities don't hold for
following identity: \verb@x == (x/y)*y + (x%y)@. Integer division and
modulo are also connected with the built-in function \verb@divmod()@:
\verb@divmod(x, y) == (x/y, x%y)@. These identities don't hold for
floating point numbers; there a similar identity holds where
\verb\x/y\ is replaced by \verb\floor(x/y)\).
\verb@x/y@ is replaced by \verb@floor(x/y)@).
The \verb\"+"\ (addition) operator yields the sum of its arguments.
The \verb@"+"@ (addition) operator yields the sum of its arguments.
The arguments must either both be numbers, or both sequences of the
same type. In the former case, the numbers are converted to a common
type and then added together. In the latter case, the sequences are
concatenated.
\index{addition}
The \verb\"-"\ (subtraction) operator yields the difference of its
The \verb@"-"@ (subtraction) operator yields the difference of its
arguments. The numeric arguments are first converted to a common
type.
\index{subtraction}
@ -470,7 +472,7 @@ shift by $n$ bits is defined as multiplication with $2^n$; for plain
integers there is no overflow check so this drops bits and flip the
sign if the result is not less than $2^{31}$ in absolute value.
Negative shift counts raise a \verb\ValueError\ exception.
Negative shift counts raise a \verb@ValueError@ exception.
\exindex{ValueError}
\section{Binary bit-wise operations}
@ -484,18 +486,18 @@ xor_expr: and_expr | xor_expr "^" and_expr
or_expr: xor_expr | or_expr "|" xor_expr
\end{verbatim}
The \verb\"&"\ operator yields the bitwise AND of its arguments, which
The \verb@"&"@ operator yields the bitwise AND of its arguments, which
must be plain or long integers. The arguments are converted to a
common type.
\indexii{bit-wise}{and}
The \verb\"^"\ operator yields the bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) of its
The \verb@"^"@ operator yields the bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) of its
arguments, which must be plain or long integers. The arguments are
converted to a common type.
\indexii{bit-wise}{xor}
\indexii{exclusive}{or}
The \verb\"|"\ operator yields the bitwise (inclusive) OR of its
The \verb@"|"@ operator yields the bitwise (inclusive) OR of its
arguments, which must be plain or long integers. The arguments are
converted to a common type.
\indexii{bit-wise}{or}
@ -507,7 +509,7 @@ converted to a common type.
Contrary to C, all comparison operations in Python have the same
priority, which is lower than that of any arithmetic, shifting or
bitwise operation. Also contrary to C, expressions like
\verb\a < b < c\ have the interpretation that is conventional in
\verb@a < b < c@ have the interpretation that is conventional in
mathematics:
\index{C}
@ -519,23 +521,23 @@ comp_operator: "<"|">"|"=="|">="|"<="|"<>"|"!="|"is" ["not"]|["not"] "in"
Comparisons yield integer values: 1 for true, 0 for false.
Comparisons can be chained arbitrarily, e.g. $x < y <= z$ is
equivalent to $x < y$ \verb\and\ $y <= z$, except that $y$ is
equivalent to $x < y$ \verb@and@ $y <= z$, except that $y$ is
evaluated only once (but in both cases $z$ is not evaluated at all
when $x < y$ is found to be false).
\indexii{chaining}{comparisons}
\catcode`\_=8
Formally, $e_0 op_1 e_1 op_2 e_2 ...e_{n-1} op_n e_n$ is equivalent to
$e_0 op_1 e_1$ \verb\and\ $e_1 op_2 e_2$ \verb\and\ ... \verb\and\
$e_0 op_1 e_1$ \verb@and@ $e_1 op_2 e_2$ \verb@and@ ... \verb@and@
$e_{n-1} op_n e_n$, except that each expression is evaluated at most once.
Note that $e_0 op_1 e_1 op_2 e_2$ does not imply any kind of comparison
between $e_0$ and $e_2$, e.g. $x < y > z$ is perfectly legal.
\catcode`\_=12
The forms \verb\<>\ and \verb\!=\ are equivalent; for consistency with
C, \verb\!=\ is preferred; where \verb\!=\ is mentioned below
\verb\<>\ is also implied.
The forms \verb@<>@ and \verb@!=@ are equivalent; for consistency with
C, \verb@!=@ is preferred; where \verb@!=@ is mentioned below
\verb@<>@ is also implied.
The operators {\tt "<", ">", "==", ">=", "<="}, and {\tt "!="} compare
the values of two objects. The objects needn't have the same type.
@ -544,8 +546,8 @@ objects of different types {\em always} compare unequal, and are
ordered consistently but arbitrarily.
(This unusual definition of comparison is done to simplify the
definition of operations like sorting and the \verb\in\ and \verb\not
in\ operators.)
definition of operations like sorting and the \verb@in@ and
\verb@not in@ operators.)
Comparison of objects of the same type depends on the type:
@ -556,7 +558,7 @@ Numbers are compared arithmetically.
\item
Strings are compared lexicographically using the numeric equivalents
(the result of the built-in function \verb\ord\) of their characters.
(the result of the built-in function \verb@ord@) of their characters.
\item
Tuples and lists are compared lexicographically using comparison of
@ -579,11 +581,11 @@ execution of a program.
\end{itemize}
The operators \verb\in\ and \verb\not in\ test for sequence
membership: if $y$ is a sequence, $x ~\verb\in\~ y$ is true if and
The operators \verb@in@ and \verb@not in@ test for sequence
membership: if $y$ is a sequence, $x ~\verb@in@~ y$ is true if and
only if there exists an index $i$ such that $x = y[i]$.
$x ~\verb\not in\~ y$ yields the inverse truth value. The exception
\verb\TypeError\ is raised when $y$ is not a sequence, or when $y$ is
$x ~\verb@not in@~ y$ yields the inverse truth value. The exception
\verb@TypeError@ is raised when $y$ is not a sequence, or when $y$ is
a string and $x$ is not a string of length one.%
\footnote{The latter restriction is sometimes a nuisance.}
\opindex{in}
@ -591,9 +593,9 @@ a string and $x$ is not a string of length one.%
\indexii{membership}{test}
\obindex{sequence}
The operators \verb\is\ and \verb\is not\ test for object identity:
$x ~\verb\is\~ y$ is true if and only if $x$ and $y$ are the same
object. $x ~\verb\is not\~ y$ yields the inverse truth value.
The operators \verb@is@ and \verb@is not@ test for object identity:
$x ~\verb@is@~ y$ is true if and only if $x$ and $y$ are the same
object. $x ~\verb@is not@~ y$ yields the inverse truth value.
\opindex{is}
\opindex{is not}
\indexii{identity}{test}
@ -613,38 +615,39 @@ lambda_form: "lambda" [parameter_list]: condition
In the context of Boolean operations, and also when conditions are
used by control flow statements, the following values are interpreted
as false: \verb\None\, numeric zero of all types, empty sequences
as false: \verb@None@, numeric zero of all types, empty sequences
(strings, tuples and lists), and empty mappings (dictionaries). All
other values are interpreted as true.
The operator \verb\not\ yields 1 if its argument is false, 0 otherwise.
The operator \verb@not@ yields 1 if its argument is false, 0 otherwise.
\opindex{not}
The condition $x ~\verb\and\~ y$ first evaluates $x$; if $x$ is false,
The condition $x ~\verb@and@~ y$ first evaluates $x$; if $x$ is false,
its value is returned; otherwise, $y$ is evaluated and the resulting
value is returned.
\opindex{and}
The condition $x ~\verb\or\~ y$ first evaluates $x$; if $x$ is true,
The condition $x ~\verb@or@~ y$ first evaluates $x$; if $x$ is true,
its value is returned; otherwise, $y$ is evaluated and the resulting
value is returned.
\opindex{or}
(Note that \verb\and\ and \verb\or\ do not restrict the value and type
(Note that \verb@and@ and \verb@or@ do not restrict the value and type
they return to 0 and 1, but rather return the last evaluated argument.
This is sometimes useful, e.g. if \verb\s\ is a string that should be
This is sometimes useful, e.g. if \verb@s@ is a string that should be
replaced by a default value if it is empty, the expression
\verb\s or 'foo'\ yields the desired value. Because \verb\not\ has to
\verb@s or 'foo'@ yields the desired value. Because \verb@not@ has to
invent a value anyway, it does not bother to return a value of the
same type as its argument, so e.g. \verb\not 'foo'\ yields \verb\0\,
not \verb\''\.)
same type as its argument, so e.g. \verb@not 'foo'@ yields \verb@0@,
not \verb@''@.)
Lambda forms (lambda expressions) have the same syntactic position as
conditions. They are a shorthand to create anonymous functions; the
expression \verb\lambda\ {\em arguments}\verb\:\ {\em condition}
expression {\em {\tt lambda} arguments{\tt :} condition}
yields a function object that behaves virtually identical to one
defined with \verb\def\ {\em name}\verb\(\{\em arguments}\verb\) :
return\ {\em condition}. See section \ref{function} for the syntax of
defined with
{\em {\tt def} name {\tt (}arguments{\tt ): return} condition}.
See section \ref{function} for the syntax of
parameter lists. Note that functions created with lambda forms cannot
contain statements.
\label{lambda}
@ -686,4 +689,4 @@ tuple, but rather yields the value of that expression (condition).
\indexii{trailing}{comma}
(To create an empty tuple, use an empty pair of parentheses:
\verb\()\.)
\verb@()@.)

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@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ the language, see the Python Tutorial. The Python Reference Manual
gives a more formal definition of the language. (These manuals are not
yet available in INFO or Texinfo format.)
Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 by Stichting Mathematisch Centrum,
Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 by Stichting Mathematisch Centrum,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
All Rights Reserved
@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
@c The following two commands start the copyright page.
@page
@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
Copyright @copyright{} 1991, 1992, 1993 by Stichting Mathematisch Centrum,
Copyright @copyright{} 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 by Stichting Mathematisch Centrum,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
@center All Rights Reserved
@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ the language, see the @cite{Python Tutorial}. The @cite{Python
Reference Manual} gives a more formal definition of the language.
(These manuals are not yet available in INFO or Texinfo format.)
This version corresponds roughly to Python version 1.0 (yet to be released).
This version corresponds to Python version 1.0.2.
@end ifinfo

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@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
; load the new texinfo package (2.xx) if not installed by default
; (setq load-path
; (cons "/ufs/jh/lib/emacs/texinfo-2.14" load-path))
(find-file "lib.texi")
; (setq load-path (cons "/ufs/guido/lib/emacs/texinfo-2.14" load-path))
(find-file "@lib.texi")
(texinfo-all-menus-update t)
(texinfo-all-menus-update t)

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@ -1 +1,2 @@
#!/bin/sh
sed -e 's/{\\ptt[ ]*\\char[ ]*'"'"'137}/_/g' <"$1" > "@$1" && mv "@$1" $1

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